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Tong S, Niu J, Wang Z, Jiao Y, Fu Y, Li D, Pan X, Sheng N, Yan L, Min P, Chen D, Cui S, Liu Y, Lin S. The Evolution of Microfluidic-Based Drug-Loading Techniques for Cells and Their Derivatives. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024:e2403422. [PMID: 39152940 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202403422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 08/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/19/2024]
Abstract
Conventional drug delivery techniques face challenges related to targeting and adverse reactions. Recent years have witnessed significant advancements in nanoparticle-based drug carriers. Nevertheless, concerns persist regarding their safety and insufficient metabolism. Employing cells and their derivatives, such as cell membranes and extracellular vesicles (EVs), as drug carriers effectively addresses the challenges associated with nanoparticle carriers. However, an essential hurdle remains in efficiently loading drugs into these carriers. With the advancement of microfluidic technology and its advantages in precise manipulation at the micro- and nanoscales, as well as minimal sample loss, it has found extensive application in the loading of drugs using cells and their derivatives, thereby fostering the development of drug-loading techniques. This paper outlines the characteristics and benefits of utilizing cells and their derivatives as drug carriers and provides an overview of current drug-loading techniques, particularly those rooted in microfluidic technology. The significant potential for microfluidic technology in targeted disease therapy through drug delivery systems employing cells and their derivatives, is foreseen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyu Tong
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Jiaqi Niu
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Zhitao Wang
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Yingao Jiao
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Yanfei Fu
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Dongxia Li
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Xinni Pan
- Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200240, P. R. China
| | - Nengquan Sheng
- Department of General Surgery, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, China
| | - Li Yan
- Department of Geriatric Surgery, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072, China
| | - Peiru Min
- Shanghai 9th People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University College of Medicine, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Di Chen
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, P. R. China
| | - Shengsheng Cui
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, P. R. China
| | - Yanlei Liu
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, P. R. China
| | - Shujing Lin
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, P. R. China
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2
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Hu T, Kumar AR, Luo Y, Tay A. Automating CAR-T Transfection with Micro and Nano-Technologies. SMALL METHODS 2024; 8:e2301300. [PMID: 38054597 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202301300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer poses a significant health challenge, with traditional treatments like surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy often lacking in cell specificity and long-term curative potential. Chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapy,utilizing genetically engineered T cells to target cancer cells, is a promising alternative. However, its high cost limits widespread application. CAR-T manufacturing process encompasses three stages: cell isolation and activation, transfection, and expansion.While the first and last stages have straightforward, commercially available automation technologies, the transfection stage lags behind. Current automated transfection relies on viral vectors or bulk electroporation, which have drawbacks such as limited cargo capacity and significant cell disturbance. Conversely, micro and nano-tool methods offer higher throughput and cargo flexibility, yet their automation remains underexplored.In this perspective, the progress in micro and nano-engineering tools for CAR-T transfection followed by a discussion to automate them is described. It is anticipated that this work can inspire the community working on micro and nano transfection techniques to examine how their protocols can be automated to align with the growing interest in automating CAR-T manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianmu Hu
- Engineering Science Programme, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117575, Singapore
| | - Arun Rk Kumar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
- Institute for Health Innovation & Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117599, Singapore
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117597, Singapore
| | - Yikai Luo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
- Institute for Health Innovation & Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117599, Singapore
| | - Andy Tay
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
- Institute for Health Innovation & Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117599, Singapore
- Tissue Engineering Programme, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117510, Singapore
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3
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Metanat Y, Viktor P, Amajd A, Kaur I, Hamed AM, Abed Al-Abadi NK, Alwan NH, Chaitanya MVNL, Lakshmaiya N, Ghildiyal P, Khalaf OM, Ciongradi CI, Sârbu I. The paths toward non-viral CAR-T cell manufacturing: A comprehensive review of state-of-the-art methods. Life Sci 2024; 348:122683. [PMID: 38702027 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Although CAR-T cell therapy has emerged as a game-changer in cancer immunotherapy several bottlenecks limit its widespread use as a front-line therapy. Current protocols for the production of CAR-T cells rely mainly on the use of lentiviral/retroviral vectors. Nevertheless, according to the safety concerns around the use of viral vectors, there are several regulatory hurdles to their clinical use. Large-scale production of viral vectors under "Current Good Manufacturing Practice" (cGMP) involves rigorous quality control assessments and regulatory requirements that impose exorbitant costs on suppliers and as a result, lead to a significant increase in the cost of treatment. Pursuing an efficient non-viral method for genetic modification of immune cells is a hot topic in cell-based gene therapy. This study aims to investigate the current state-of-the-art in non-viral methods of CAR-T cell manufacturing. In the first part of this study, after reviewing the advantages and disadvantages of the clinical use of viral vectors, different non-viral vectors and the path of their clinical translation are discussed. These vectors include transposons (sleeping beauty, piggyBac, Tol2, and Tc Buster), programmable nucleases (ZFNs, TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9), mRNA, plasmids, minicircles, and nanoplasmids. Afterward, various methods for efficient delivery of non-viral vectors into the cells are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yekta Metanat
- Faculty of Medicine, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Iran
| | - Patrik Viktor
- Óbuda University, Karoly Keleti faculty, Tavaszmező u. 15-17, H-1084 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ayesha Amajd
- Faculty of Transport and Aviation Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Krasińskiego 8 Street, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
| | - Irwanjot Kaur
- Department of Biotechnology and Genetics, Jain (Deemed-to-be) University, Bangalore, Karnataka, India; Department of Allied Healthcare and Sciences, Vivekananda Global University, Jaipur, Rajasthan-303012, India
| | | | | | | | - M V N L Chaitanya
- School of pharmaceutical sciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road, Phagwara, Punjab - 144411, India
| | | | - Pallavi Ghildiyal
- Uttaranchal Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, India
| | | | - Carmen Iulia Ciongradi
- 2nd Department of Surgery-Pediatric Surgery and Orthopedics, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Iași, Romania.
| | - Ioan Sârbu
- 2nd Department of Surgery-Pediatric Surgery and Orthopedics, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Iași, Romania.
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4
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Sun H, Yu L, Chen Y, Yang H, Sun L. Analysis of In Situ Electroporation Utilizing Induced Electric Field at a Wireless Janus Microelectrode. MICROMACHINES 2024; 15:819. [PMID: 39064330 PMCID: PMC11279304 DOI: 10.3390/mi15070819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
In situ electroporation, a non-invasive technique for enhancing the permeability of cell membranes, has emerged as a powerful tool for intracellular delivery and manipulation. This method allows for the precise introduction of therapeutic agents, such as nucleic acids, drugs, and proteins, directly into target cells within their native tissue environment. Herein, we introduce an innovative electroporation strategy that employs a Janus particle (JP)-based microelectrode to generate a localized and controllable electric field within a microfluidic chip. The microfluidic device is engineered with an indium tin oxide (ITO)-sandwiched microchannel, where the electric field is applied, and suspended JP microelectrodes that induce a stronger localized electric field. The corresponding simulation model is developed to better understand the dynamic electroporation process. Numerical simulations for both single-cell and chain-assembled cell electroporation have been successfully conducted. The effects of various parameters, including pulse voltage, duration medium conductivity, and radius of Janus microelectrode, on cell membrane permeabilization are systematically investigated. Our findings indicate that the enhanced electric intensity near the poles of the JP microelectrode significantly contributes to the electroporation process. In addition, the distribution for both transmembrane voltage and the resultant nanopores can be altered by conveniently adjusting the relative position of the JP microelectrode, demonstrating a selective and in situ electroporation technique for spatial control over the delivery area. Moreover, the obtained differences in the distribution of electroporation between chain cells can offer insightful directives for the electroporation of tissues or cell populations, enabling the precise and targeted modulation of specific cell populations. As a proof of concept, this work can provide a robust alternative technique for the study of complex and personalized cellular processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haizhen Sun
- School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215299, China; (L.Y.); (Y.C.); (L.S.)
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Linkai Yu
- School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215299, China; (L.Y.); (Y.C.); (L.S.)
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yifan Chen
- School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215299, China; (L.Y.); (Y.C.); (L.S.)
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Hao Yang
- School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215299, China; (L.Y.); (Y.C.); (L.S.)
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Lining Sun
- School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215299, China; (L.Y.); (Y.C.); (L.S.)
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
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5
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Muralidharan A, Boukany PE. Electrotransfer for nucleic acid and protein delivery. Trends Biotechnol 2024; 42:780-798. [PMID: 38102019 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2023.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Electrotransfer of nucleic acids and proteins has become crucial in biotechnology for gene augmentation and genome editing. This review explores the applications of electrotransfer in both ex vivo and in vivo scenarios, emphasizing biomedical uses. We provide insights into completed clinical trials and successful instances of nucleic acid and protein electrotransfer into therapeutically relevant cells such as immune cells and stem and progenitor cells. In addition, we delve into emerging areas of electrotransfer where nanotechnology and deep learning techniques overcome the limitations of traditional electroporation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aswin Muralidharan
- Department of Bionanoscience, Delft University of Technology, van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands; Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - Pouyan E Boukany
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands.
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6
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Park I, Choi S, Gwak Y, Kim J, Min G, Lim D, Lee SW. Microfluidic Electroporation Arrays for Investigating Electroporation-Induced Cellular Rupture Dynamics. BIOSENSORS 2024; 14:242. [PMID: 38785716 PMCID: PMC11118139 DOI: 10.3390/bios14050242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Electroporation is pivotal in bioelectrochemistry for cellular manipulation, with prominent applications in drug delivery and cell membrane studies. A comprehensive understanding of pore generation requires an in-depth analysis of the critical pore size and the corresponding energy barrier at the onset of cell rupture. However, many studies have been limited to basic models such as artificial membranes or theoretical simulations. Challenging this paradigm, our study pioneers using a microfluidic electroporation chip array. This tool subjects live breast cancer cell species to a diverse spectrum of alternating current electric field conditions, driving electroporation-induced cell rupture. We conclusively determined the rupture voltages across varying applied voltage loading rates, enabling an unprecedented characterization of electric cell rupture dynamics encompassing critical pore radius and energy barrier. Further bolstering our investigation, we probed cells subjected to cholesterol depletion via methyl-β-cyclodextrin and revealed a strong correlation with electroporation. This work not only elucidates the dynamics of electric rupture in live cell membranes but also sets a robust foundation for future explorations into the mechanisms and energetics of live cell electroporation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insu Park
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Konyang University, Daejeon 35365, Republic of Korea; (I.P.)
| | - Seungyeop Choi
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02481, Republic of Korea;
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
- BK21 Four Institute of Precision Public Health, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngwoo Gwak
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Jingwon Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyeongjun Min
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Danyou Lim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Konyang University, Daejeon 35365, Republic of Korea; (I.P.)
| | - Sang Woo Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
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7
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Berdecka D, De Smedt SC, De Vos WH, Braeckmans K. Non-viral delivery of RNA for therapeutic T cell engineering. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2024; 208:115215. [PMID: 38401848 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2024.115215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Adoptive T cell transfer has shown great success in treating blood cancers, resulting in a growing number of FDA-approved therapies using chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T cells. However, the effectiveness of this treatment for solid tumors is still not satisfactory, emphasizing the need for improved T cell engineering strategies and combination approaches. Currently, CAR T cells are mainly manufactured using gammaretroviral and lentiviral vectors due to their high transduction efficiency. However, there are concerns about their safety, the high cost of producing them in compliance with current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP), regulatory obstacles, and limited cargo capacity, which limit the broader use of engineered T cell therapies. To overcome these limitations, researchers have explored non-viral approaches, such as membrane permeabilization and carrier-mediated methods, as more versatile and sustainable alternatives for next-generation T cell engineering. Non-viral delivery methods can be designed to transport a wide range of molecules, including RNA, which allows for more controlled and safe modulation of T cell phenotype and function. In this review, we provide an overview of non-viral RNA delivery in adoptive T cell therapy. We first define the different types of RNA therapeutics, highlighting recent advancements in manufacturing for their therapeutic use. We then discuss the challenges associated with achieving effective RNA delivery in T cells. Next, we provide an overview of current and emerging technologies for delivering RNA into T cells. Finally, we discuss ongoing preclinical and clinical studies involving RNA-modified T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Berdecka
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; Laboratory of Cell Biology and Histology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Stefaan C De Smedt
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Winnok H De Vos
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Histology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Kevin Braeckmans
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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8
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Kim H, Kim S, Lim H, Chung AJ. Expanding CAR-T cell immunotherapy horizons through microfluidics. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:1088-1120. [PMID: 38174732 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00622k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapies have revolutionized cancer treatment, particularly in hematological malignancies. However, their application to solid tumors is limited, and they face challenges in safety, scalability, and cost. To enhance current CAR-T cell therapies, the integration of microfluidic technologies, harnessing their inherent advantages, such as reduced sample consumption, simplicity in operation, cost-effectiveness, automation, and high scalability, has emerged as a powerful solution. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the step-by-step manufacturing process of CAR-T cells, identifies existing difficulties at each production stage, and discusses the successful implementation of microfluidics and related technologies in addressing these challenges. Furthermore, this review investigates the potential of microfluidics-based methodologies in advancing cell-based therapy across various applications, including solid tumors, next-generation CAR constructs, T-cell receptors, and the development of allogeneic "off-the-shelf" CAR products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyelee Kim
- Department of Bioengineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health (PPH), Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Suyeon Kim
- Department of Bioengineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health (PPH), Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyunjung Lim
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health (PPH), Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Aram J Chung
- Department of Bioengineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health (PPH), Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
- MxT Biotech, 04785 Seoul, Republic of Korea
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9
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VanderBurgh JA, Corso GT, Levy SL, Craighead HG. A multiplexed microfluidic continuous-flow electroporation system for efficient cell transfection. Biomed Microdevices 2024; 26:10. [PMID: 38194117 DOI: 10.1007/s10544-023-00692-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Cellular therapies have the potential to advance treatment for a broad array of diseases but rely on viruses for genetic reprogramming. The time and cost required to produce viruses has created a bottleneck that constricts development of and access to cellular therapies. Electroporation is a non-viral alternative for genetic reprogramming that bypasses these bottlenecks, but current electroporation technology suffers from low throughput, tedious optimization, and difficulty scaling to large-scale cell manufacturing. Here, we present an adaptable microfluidic electroporation platform with the capability for rapid, multiplexed optimization with 96-well plates. Once parameters are optimized using small volumes of cells, transfection can be seamlessly scaled to high-volume cell manufacturing without re-optimization. We demonstrate optimizing transfection of plasmid DNA to Jurkat cells, screening hundreds of different electrical waveforms of varying shapes at a speed of ~3 s per waveform using ~20 µL of cells per waveform. We selected an optimal set of transfection parameters using a low-volume flow cell. These parameters were then used in a separate high-volume flow cell where we obtained similar transfection performance by design. This demonstrates an alternative non-viral and economical transfection method for scaling to the volume required for producing a cell therapy without sacrificing performance. Importantly, this transfection method is disease-agnostic with broad applications beyond cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Grant T Corso
- CyteQuest, Inc, 95 Brown Road, Box 1011, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Stephen L Levy
- CyteQuest, Inc, 95 Brown Road, Box 1011, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
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10
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Sevenler D, Toner M. High throughput intracellular delivery by viscoelastic mechanoporation. Nat Commun 2024; 15:115. [PMID: 38167490 PMCID: PMC10762167 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44447-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Brief pulses of electric field (electroporation) and/or tensile stress (mechanoporation) have been used to reversibly permeabilize the plasma membrane of mammalian cells and deliver materials to the cytosol. However, electroporation can be harmful to cells, while efficient mechanoporation strategies have not been scalable due to the use of narrow constrictions or needles which are susceptible to clogging. Here we report a high throughput approach to mechanoporation in which the plasma membrane is stretched and reversibly permeabilized by viscoelastic fluid forces within a microfluidic chip without surface contact. Biomolecules are delivered directly to the cytosol within seconds at a throughput exceeding 250 million cells per minute. Viscoelastic mechanoporation is compatible with a variety of biomolecules including proteins, RNA, and CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein complexes, as well as a range of cell types including HEK293T cells and primary T cells. Altogether, viscoelastic mechanoporation appears feasible for contact-free permeabilization and delivery of biomolecules to mammalian cells ex vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derin Sevenler
- Center for Engineering in Medicine and Surgery, Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Mehmet Toner
- Center for Engineering in Medicine and Surgery, Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
- Shriners Children's, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
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11
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Pfisterer F, Godino N, Gerling T, Kirschbaum M. Continuous microfluidic flow-through protocol for selective and image-activated electroporation of single cells. RSC Adv 2023; 13:19379-19387. [PMID: 37383687 PMCID: PMC10294288 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra03100d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Electroporation of cells is a widely-used tool to transport molecules such as proteins or nucleic acids into cells or to extract cellular material. However, bulk methods for electroporation do not offer the possibility to selectively porate subpopulations or single cells in heterogeneous cell samples. To achieve this, either presorting or complex single-cell technologies are required currently. In this work, we present a microfluidic flow protocol for selective electroporation of predefined target cells identified in real-time by high-quality microscopic image analysis of fluorescence and transmitted light. While traveling through the microchannel, the cells are focused by dielectrophoretic forces into the microscopic detection area, where they are classified based on image analysis techniques. Finally, the cells are forwarded to a poration electrode and only the target cells are pulsed. By processing a heterogenically stained cell sample, we were able to selectively porate only target cells (green-fluorescent) while non-target cells (blue-fluorescent) remained unaffected. We achieved highly selective poration with >90% specificity at average poration rates of >50% and throughputs of up to 7200 cells per hour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Pfisterer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses IZI-BB Am Muehlenberg 13 14476 Potsdam Germany
| | - Neus Godino
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses IZI-BB Am Muehlenberg 13 14476 Potsdam Germany
| | - Tobias Gerling
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses IZI-BB Am Muehlenberg 13 14476 Potsdam Germany
| | - Michael Kirschbaum
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology IZI, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses IZI-BB Am Muehlenberg 13 14476 Potsdam Germany
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12
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Sevenler D, Toner M. High throughput intracellular delivery by viscoelastic mechanoporation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.24.538131. [PMID: 37163007 PMCID: PMC10168280 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.24.538131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Brief and intense electric fields (electroporation) and/or tensile stresses (mechanoporation) have been used to temporarily permeabilize the plasma membrane of mammalian cells for the purpose of delivering materials to the cytosol. However, electroporation can be harmful to cells, while efficient mechanoporation strategies have not been scalable due to the use of narrow constrictions or needles which are susceptible to clogging. Here we report a method of mechanoporation in which cells were stretched and permeabilized by viscoelastic flow forces without surface contact. Inertio-elastic cell focusing aligned cells to the center of the device, avoiding direct contact with walls and enabling efficient (95%) intracellular delivery to over 200 million cells per minute. Functional biomolecules such as proteins, RNA, and ribonucleoprotein complexes were successfully delivered to Jurkat cells. Efficient intracellular delivery to HEK293T cells and primary activated T cells was also demonstrated. Contact-free mechanoporation using viscoelastic fluid forces appears to be feasible method for efficient and high throughput intracellular delivery of biomolecules to mammalian cells ex vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derin Sevenler
- Center for Engineering in Medicine and Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mehmet Toner
- Center for Engineering in Medicine and Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Shriners Hospitals for Children, Boston, MA, USA
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13
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VanderBurgh JA, Corso TN, Levy SL, Craighead HG. Scalable continuous-flow electroporation platform enabling T cell transfection for cellular therapy manufacturing. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6857. [PMID: 37185305 PMCID: PMC10133335 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33941-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral vectors represent a bottleneck in the manufacturing of cellular therapies. Electroporation has emerged as an approach for non-viral transfection of primary cells, but standard cuvette-based approaches suffer from low throughput, difficult optimization, and incompatibility with large-scale cell manufacturing. Here, we present a novel electroporation platform capable of rapid and reproducible electroporation that can efficiently transfect small volumes of cells for research and process optimization and scale to volumes required for applications in cellular therapy. We demonstrate delivery of plasmid DNA and mRNA to primary human T cells with high efficiency and viability, such as > 95% transfection efficiency for mRNA delivery with < 2% loss of cell viability compared to control cells. We present methods for scaling delivery that achieve an experimental throughput of 256 million cells/min. Finally, we demonstrate a therapeutically relevant modification of primary T cells using CRISPR/Cas9 to knockdown T cell receptor (TCR) expression. This study displays the capabilities of our system to address unmet needs for efficient, non-viral engineering of T cells for cell manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas N Corso
- CyteQuest, Inc, 95 Brown Road, Box 1011, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Stephen L Levy
- CyteQuest, Inc, 95 Brown Road, Box 1011, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
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14
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Chen YH, Jiang R, Lee AP. Titering of Chimeric Antigen Receptors on CAR T Cells enabled by a Microfluidic-based Dosage-Controlled Intracellular mRNA Delivery Platform. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.03.14.532624. [PMID: 36993279 PMCID: PMC10055039 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.14.532624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy shows unprecedented efficacy for cancer treatment, particularly in treating patients with various blood cancers, most notably B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). In recent years, CAR T-cell therapies are being investigated for treating other hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. Despite the remarkable success of CAR T-cell therapy, it has unexpected side effects that are potentially life threatening. Here, we demonstrate the delivery of approximately the same amount of CAR gene coding mRNA into each T cell propose an acoustic-electric microfluidic platform to manipulate cell membranes and achieve dosage control via uniform mixing, which delivers approximately the same amount of CAR genes into each T cell. We also show that CAR expression density can be titered on the surface of primary T cells under various input power conditions using the microfluidic platform.
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15
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Fenton GA, Mitchell DA. Cellular Cancer Immunotherapy Development and Manufacturing in the Clinic. Clin Cancer Res 2023; 29:843-857. [PMID: 36383184 PMCID: PMC9975672 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-22-2257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The transfusion of naturally derived or modified cellular therapies, referred to as adoptive cell therapy (ACT), has demonstrated clinical efficacy in the treatment of hematologic malignancies and metastatic melanoma. In addition, cellular vaccination, such as dendritic cell-based cancer vaccines, continues to be actively explored. The manufacturing of these therapies presents a considerable challenge to expanding the use of ACT as a viable treatment modality, particularly at academic production facilities. Furthermore, the expanding commercial interest in ACT presents new opportunities as well as strategic challenges for the future vision of cellular manufacturing in academic centers. Current trends in the production of ACT at tertiary care centers and prospects for improved manufacturing practices that will foster further clinical benefit are reviewed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graeme A Fenton
- Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.,Preston A. Wells Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Duane A Mitchell
- Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.,Preston A. Wells Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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16
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Alhmoud H, Alkhaled M, Kaynak BE, Hanay MS. Leveraging the elastic deformability of polydimethylsiloxane microfluidic channels for efficient intracellular delivery. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:714-726. [PMID: 36472226 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00692h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
With the rapid development of microfluidic based cell therapeutics systems, the need arises for compact, modular, and microfluidics-compatible intracellular delivery platforms with small footprints and minimal operational requirements. Physical deformation of cells passing through a constriction in a microfluidic channel has been shown to create transient membrane perturbations that allow passive diffusion of materials from the outside to the interior of the cell. This mechanical approach to intracellular delivery is simple to implement and fits the criteria outlined above. However, available microfluidic platforms that operate through this mechanism are traditionally constructed from rigid channels with fixed dimensions that suffer from irreversible clogging and incompatibility with larger size distributions of cells. Here we report a flexible and elastically deformable microfluidic channel, and we leverage this elasticity to dynamically generate temporary constrictions with any given size within the channel width parameters. Additionally, clogging is prevented by increasing the size of the constriction momentarily to allow clogs to pass. By tuning the size of the constriction appropriately, we show the successful delivery of GFP-coding plasmids to the interior of three mammalian cell lines and fluorescent gold nanoparticles to HEK293 FT cells all the while maintaining a high cell viability rate. We also demonstrate the device capabilities by systematically identifying the optimum constriction size that maximizes the intracellular delivery efficiency of FITC-dextran for three different cell lines. This development will no doubt lead to miniaturized intracellular delivery microfluidic components that can be easily integrated into larger lab-on-a-chip systems for future cell modification devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hashim Alhmoud
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey.
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology (UNAM), Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mohammed Alkhaled
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey.
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology (UNAM), Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Batuhan E Kaynak
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey.
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology (UNAM), Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - M Selim Hanay
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey.
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology (UNAM), Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
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17
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Vats S, Ballesteros C, Hung S, Sparapani S, Wong K, Haruna J, Li C, Authier S. An Overview of Gene Editing Modalities and Related Non-clinical Testing Considerations. Int J Toxicol 2023; 42:207-218. [PMID: 36762691 DOI: 10.1177/10915818231153996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
Gene therapy has become an important modality for a wide range of therapeutic indications with a rapid increase in the number of therapeutic candidates being developed in this field. Understanding the molecular biology underlying the gene therapy is often critical to develop appropriate safety assessment strategies. We aimed to discuss some of the commonly used gene therapy modalities and common preclinical toxicology testing considerations when developing gene therapies. Non-viral gene delivery methods such as electroporation, microinjection, peptide nanoparticles and lipid nanoparticles are deployed as innovative molecular molecular construct which are included in the design of novel gene therapies and the associated molecular biology mechanisms have become relevant knowledge to non-clinical toxicology. Viral gene delivery methodologies including Adenovirus vectors, Adeno-Associated virus vectors and Lentivirus gene therapy vectors have also advanced considerably across numerous therapeutic areas, raising unique non-clinical toxicology and immunological considerations. General toxicology, biodistribution and tumorigenicity are the pillars of non-clinical safety testing in gene therapies. Evaluating the tumorigenicity potential of a gene editing therapy often leverages molecular pathology while some translational challenges remain. Toxicology study design is entering a new era where science-driven customized approaches and program specific considerations have become the norm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srishti Vats
- 70294Charles River Laboratories, Laval, QC, Canada
| | | | - Selly Hung
- 70294Charles River Laboratories, Laval, QC, Canada
| | | | - Karen Wong
- 70294Charles River Laboratories, Laval, QC, Canada
| | | | - Christian Li
- 70294Charles River Laboratories, Laval, QC, Canada
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18
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Potočnik T, Maček Lebar A, Kos Š, Reberšek M, Pirc E, Serša G, Miklavčič D. Effect of Experimental Electrical and Biological Parameters on Gene Transfer by Electroporation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14122700. [PMID: 36559197 PMCID: PMC9786189 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14122700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The exact mechanisms of nucleic acid (NA) delivery with gene electrotransfer (GET) are still unknown, which represents a limitation for its broader use. Further, not knowing the effects that different experimental electrical and biological parameters have on GET additionally hinders GET optimization, resulting in the majority of research being performed using a trial-and-error approach. To explore the current state of knowledge, we conducted a systematic literature review of GET papers in in vitro conditions and performed meta-analyses of the reported GET efficiency. For now, there is no universal GET strategy that would be appropriate for all experimental aims. Apart from the availability of the required electroporation device and electrodes, the choice of an optimal GET approach depends on parameters such as the electroporation medium; type and origin of cells; and the size, concentration, promoter, and type of the NA to be transfected. Equally important are appropriate controls and the measurement or evaluation of the output pulses to allow a fair and unbiased evaluation of the experimental results. Since many experimental electrical and biological parameters can affect GET, it is important that all used parameters are adequately reported to enable the comparison of results, as well as potentially faster and more efficient experiment planning and optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tjaša Potočnik
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaška 25, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Alenka Maček Lebar
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaška 25, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Špela Kos
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloška cesta 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Matej Reberšek
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaška 25, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Eva Pirc
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaška 25, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Serša
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology Ljubljana, Zaloška cesta 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Damijan Miklavčič
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaška 25, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Correspondence:
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19
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Liu F, Yang Z, Yao R, Li H, Cheng J, Guo M. Bulk Electroporation for Intracellular Delivery Directly Driven by Mechanical Stimulus. ACS NANO 2022; 16:19363-19372. [PMID: 36350673 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c08945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Electroporation (EP) is an effective and widely accepted intracellular delivery method for fundamental research and medical applications. Existing electroporation methods usually require a commercially available EP system or tailor-made high-voltage (HV, up to kV) power source and are complicated, expensive, harmful to the cells, and even dangerous to the operators. A triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) is a highly studied device that can generate HV output with limited charges and ultrahigh internal impedance. Here, we developed a Bulk Electroporation System based on TENG (BEST). To maximize the load voltage of the TENG, a flowing EP unit with a capillary was designed as a resistive load to realize impedance matching. A low conductivity buffer was used to further match and assist cell electroporation. Besides, the electrical model and experiments on cells transfected with the BEST showed that the bulk electric field of the cell medium could reach up to 1 kV/cm, therefore resulting in a nearly 30 times increase of trans-membrane potential, thus largely improving transfection efficiency. Finally, using 40 kDa FITC-dextran, we showed that a delivery efficiency above 50% with a cell viability maintained over 90% can be achieved in HeLa cells. This work demonstrated the potential of TENG in the biomedical field as a naturally safe HV power source. It also provided a simple, alternative, and low-cost solution for EP research and related biomedicine applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts02139, United States
| | - Ze Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing100084, P. R. China
- School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing100083, P. R. China
| | - Rui Yao
- Biomanufacturing and Rapid Forming Technology Key Laboratory of Beijing, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing100084, P.R. China
| | - Hui Li
- School of Systems Science and Institute of Nonequilibrium Systems, Beijing Normal University, Beijing100875, P.R. China
| | - Jia Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology in Advanced Equipment, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing100084, P. R. China
| | - Ming Guo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts02139, United States
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20
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Liu T, Gao C, Gu D, Tang H. Cell-based carrier for targeted hitchhiking delivery. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2634-2648. [PMID: 35499717 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01149-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Drug delivery systems aim at improving drug transport efficiency and therapeutic efficacy by rational design, and current research on conventional delivery systems brings new developments for disease treatment. Recently, studies on cell-based drug delivery systems are rapidly emerging, which shows great advantages in comparison to conventional drug delivery system. The system uses cells as carriers to delivery conventional drugs or nanomedicines and shows good biocompatibility and enhanced targeting efficiency, beneficial from self component and its physiological function. The construction methodology of cell-based carrier determines the effect on the physiological functions of transporting cell and affects its clinical application. There are different strategies to prepare cell-based carrier, such as direct internalization or surface conjugation of drugs or drug loaded materials. Thus, it is necessary to fully understand the advantages and disadvantages of different strategies for constructing cell-based carrier and then to seek the appropriate construction methodology for achieving better therapeutic results based on disease characterization. We here summarize the application of different types of cell-based carriers reported in recent years and further discuss their applications in disease therapy and the dilemmas faced in clinical translation. We hope that this summary can accelerate the process of clinical translation by promoting the technology development of cell-based carrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonggong Liu
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Dongguan Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, 523808, China.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shenzhen Institute of Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen, 518035, China
| | - Cheng Gao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shenzhen Institute of Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen, 518035, China.,Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dayong Gu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shenzhen Institute of Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen, 518035, China.
| | - Huanwen Tang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Dongguan Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, 523808, China.
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21
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Abstract
Electroporation (EP) is a commonly used strategy to increase cell permeability for intracellular cargo delivery or irreversible cell membrane disruption using electric fields. In recent years, EP performance has been improved by shrinking electrodes and device structures to the microscale. Integration with microfluidics has led to the design of devices performing static EP, where cells are fixed in a defined region, or continuous EP, where cells constantly pass through the device. Each device type performs superior to conventional, macroscale EP devices while providing additional advantages in precision manipulation (static EP) and increased throughput (continuous EP). Microscale EP is gentle on cells and has enabled more sensitive assaying of cells with novel applications. In this Review, we present the physical principles of microscale EP devices and examine design trends in recent years. In addition, we discuss the use of reversible and irreversible EP in the development of therapeutics and analysis of intracellular contents, among other noteworthy applications. This Review aims to inform and encourage scientists and engineers to expand the use of efficient and versatile microscale EP technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Eun Choi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
| | - Harrison Khoo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
| | - Soojung Claire Hur
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
- Institute for NanoBioTechnology, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University, 401 North Broadway, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
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22
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Wang F, Lin S, Yu Z, Wang Y, Zhang D, Cao C, Wang Z, Cui D, Chen D. Recent advances in microfluidic-based electroporation techniques for cell membranes. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:2624-2646. [PMID: 35775630 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00122e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Electroporation is a fundamental technique for applications in biotechnology. To date, the ongoing research on cell membrane electroporation has explored its mechanism, principles and potential applications. Therefore, in this review, we first discuss the primary electroporation mechanism to help establish a clear framework. Within the context of its principles, several critical terms are highlighted to present a better understanding of the theory of aqueous pores. Different degrees of electroporation can be used in different applications. Thus, we discuss the electric factors (shock strength, shock duration, and shock frequency) responsible for the degree of electroporation. In addition, finding an effective electroporation detection method is of great significance to optimize electroporation experiments. Accordingly, we summarize several primary electroporation detection methods in the following sections. Finally, given the development of micro- and nano-technology has greatly promoted the innovation of microfluidic-based electroporation devices, we also present the recent advances in microfluidic-based electroporation devices. Also, the challenges and outlook of the electroporation technique for cell membrane electroporation are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Wang
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China.
- Shanghai Engineering Research Centre for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Key Lab. for Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology of Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Shujing Lin
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China.
- Shanghai Engineering Research Centre for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Key Lab. for Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology of Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Zixian Yu
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China.
- Shanghai Engineering Research Centre for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Key Lab. for Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology of Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Yanpu Wang
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China.
- Shanghai Engineering Research Centre for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Key Lab. for Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology of Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Di Zhang
- Centre for Advanced Electronic Materials and Devices (AEMD), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Chengxi Cao
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China.
- Shanghai Engineering Research Centre for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Zhigang Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Daxiang Cui
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China.
- Shanghai Engineering Research Centre for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Key Lab. for Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology of Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Di Chen
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China.
- Shanghai Engineering Research Centre for Intelligent Diagnosis and Treatment Instrument, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Key Lab. for Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology of Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
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23
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Aghaamoo M, Chen Y, Li X, Garg N, Jiang R, Yun JT, Lee AP. High-Throughput and Dosage-Controlled Intracellular Delivery of Large Cargos by an Acoustic-Electric Micro-Vortices Platform. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2102021. [PMID: 34716688 PMCID: PMC8728830 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202102021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A high-throughput non-viral intracellular delivery platform is introduced for the transfection of large cargos with dosage-control. This platform, termed Acoustic-Electric Shear Orbiting Poration (AESOP), optimizes the delivery of intended cargo sizes with poration of the cell membranes via mechanical shear followed by the modulated expansion of these nanopores via electric field. Furthermore, AESOP utilizes acoustic microstreaming vortices wherein up to millions of cells are trapped and mixed uniformly with exogenous cargos, enabling the delivery of cargos into cells with targeted dosages. Intracellular delivery of a wide range of molecule sizes (<1 kDa to 2 MDa) with high efficiency (>90%), cell viability (>80%), and uniform dosages (<60% coefficient of variation (CV)) simultaneously into 1 million cells min-1 per single chip is demonstrated. AESOP is successfully applied to two gene editing applications that require the delivery of large plasmids: i) enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) plasmid (6.1 kbp) transfection, and ii) clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9-mediated gene knockout using a 9.3 kbp plasmid DNA encoding Cas9 protein and single guide RNA (sgRNA). Compared to alternative platforms, this platform offers dosage-controlled intracellular delivery of large plasmids simultaneously to large populations of cells while maintaining cell viability at comparable delivery efficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Aghaamoo
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
- Center for Advanced Design & Manufacturing of Integrated Microfluidics (CADMIM)University of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
| | - Yu‐Hsi Chen
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
- Center for Advanced Design & Manufacturing of Integrated Microfluidics (CADMIM)University of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
| | - Xuan Li
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
- Center for Advanced Design & Manufacturing of Integrated Microfluidics (CADMIM)University of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
| | - Neha Garg
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
- Center for Advanced Design & Manufacturing of Integrated Microfluidics (CADMIM)University of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
| | - Ruoyu Jiang
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
- Center for Advanced Design & Manufacturing of Integrated Microfluidics (CADMIM)University of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
| | - Jeremy Tian‐Hao Yun
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
- Palo Alto Senior High SchoolPalo AltoCA94301USA
| | - Abraham Phillip Lee
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
- Center for Advanced Design & Manufacturing of Integrated Microfluidics (CADMIM)University of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace EngineeringUniversity of California IrvineIrvineCA92697USA
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24
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Gerlt MS, Ruppen P, Leuthner M, Panke S, Dual J. Acoustofluidic medium exchange for preparation of electrocompetent bacteria using channel wall trapping. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:4487-4497. [PMID: 34668506 PMCID: PMC8577197 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc00406a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Comprehensive integration of process steps into a miniaturised version of synthetic biology workflows remains a crucial task in automating the design of biosystems. However, each of these process steps has specific demands with respect to the environmental conditions, including in particular the composition of the surrounding fluid, which makes integration cumbersome. As a case in point, transformation, i.e. reprogramming of bacteria by delivering exogenous genetic material (such as DNA) into the cytoplasm, is a key process in molecular engineering and modern biotechnology in general. Transformation is often performed by electroporation, i.e. creating pores in the membrane using electric shocks in a low conductivity environment. However, cell preparation for electroporation can be cumbersome as it requires the exchange of growth medium (high-conductivity) for low-conductivity medium, typically performed via multiple time-intensive centrifugation steps. To simplify and miniaturise this step, we developed an acoustofluidic device capable of trapping the bacterium Escherichia coli non-invasively for subsequent exchange of medium, which is challenging in acoustofluidic devices due to detrimental acoustic streaming effects. With an improved etching process, we were able to produce a thin wall between two microfluidic channels, which, upon excitation, can generate streaming fields that complement the acoustic radiation force and therefore can be utilised for trapping of bacteria. Our novel design robustly traps Escherichia coli at a flow rate of 10 μL min-1 and has a cell recovery performance of 47 ± 3% after washing the trapped cells. To verify that the performance of the medium exchange device is sufficient, we tested the electrocompetence of the recovered cells in a standard transformation procedure and found a transformation efficiency of 8 × 105 CFU per μg of plasmid DNA. Our device is a low-volume alternative to centrifugation-based methods and opens the door for miniaturisation of a plethora of microbiological and molecular engineering protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Gerlt
- Mechanics and Experimental Dynamics, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich), Tannenstrasse 3, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - P Ruppen
- Bioprocess Laboratory, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich), Mattenstrasse 26, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland.
- NCCR Molecular Systems Engineering, BPR 1095, Mattenstrasse 24a, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - M Leuthner
- Mechanics and Experimental Dynamics, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich), Tannenstrasse 3, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - S Panke
- Bioprocess Laboratory, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich), Mattenstrasse 26, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland.
- NCCR Molecular Systems Engineering, BPR 1095, Mattenstrasse 24a, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - J Dual
- Mechanics and Experimental Dynamics, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich), Tannenstrasse 3, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
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25
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Microfluidic transfection of mRNA into human primary lymphocytes and hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells using ultra-fast physical deformations. Sci Rep 2021; 11:21407. [PMID: 34725429 PMCID: PMC8560772 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00893-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Messenger RNA (mRNA) delivery provides gene therapy with the potential to achieve transient therapeutic efficacy without risk of insertional mutagenesis. Amongst other applications, mRNA can be employed as a platform to deliver gene editing molecules, to achieve protein expression as an alternative to enzyme replacement therapies, and to express chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) on immune cells for the treatment of cancer. We designed a novel microfluidic device that allows for efficient mRNA delivery via volume exchange for convective transfection (VECT). In the device, cells flow through a ridged channel that enforces a series of ultra-fast and large intensity deformations able to transiently open pores and induce convective transport of mRNA into the cell. Here, we describe efficient delivery of mRNA into T cells, natural killer (NK) cells and hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs), three human primary cell types widely used for ex vivo gene therapy applications. Results demonstrate that the device can operate at a wide range of cell and payload concentrations and that ultra-fast compressions do not have a negative impact on T cell function, making this a novel and competitive platform for the development of ex vivo mRNA-based gene therapies and other cell products engineered with mRNA.
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Tay A, Melosh N. Mechanical Stimulation after Centrifuge-Free Nano-Electroporative Transfection Is Efficient and Maintains Long-Term T Cell Functionalities. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 17:e2103198. [PMID: 34396686 PMCID: PMC8475193 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202103198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Transfection is an essential step in genetic engineering and cell therapies. While a number of non-viral micro- and nano-technologies have been developed to deliver DNA plasmids into the cell cytoplasm, one of the most challenging and least efficient steps is DNA transport to and expression in the nucleus. Here, the magnetic nano-electro-injection (MagNEI) platform is described which makes use of oscillatory mechanical stimulation after cytoplasmic delivery with high aspect-ratio nano-structures to achieve stable (>2 weeks) net transfection efficiency (efficiency × viability) of 50% in primary human T cells. This is, to the best of the authors' knowledge, the highest net efficiency reported for primary T cells using a centrifuge-free, non-viral transfection method, in the absence of cell selection, and with a clinically relevant cargo size (>12 kbp). Wireless mechanical stimulation downregulates the expression of microtubule motor protein gene, KIF2A, which increases local DNA concentration near the nuclei, resulting in enhanced DNA transfection. Magnetic forces also accelerate membrane repair by promoting actin cytoskeletal remodeling which preserves key biological attributes including cell proliferation and gene expressions. These results demonstrate MagNEI as a powerful non-viral transfection technique for progress toward fully closed, end-to-end T cell manufacturing with less human labor, lower production cost, and shorter delay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Tay
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117583
- Institute of Health Innovation & Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117599
| | - Nicholas Melosh
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
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Joo B, Hur J, Kim GB, Yun SG, Chung AJ. Highly Efficient Transfection of Human Primary T Lymphocytes Using Droplet-Enabled Mechanoporation. ACS NANO 2021; 15:12888-12898. [PMID: 34142817 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c10473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Whole-cell-based therapy has been extensively used as an effective disease treatment approach, and it has rapidly changed the therapeutic paradigm. To fully accommodate this shift, advances in genome modification and cell reprogramming methodologies are critical. Traditionally, molecular tools such as viral and polymer nanocarriers and electroporation have been the norm for internalizing external biomolecules into cells for cellular engineering. However, these approaches are not fully satisfactory considering their cytotoxicity, high cost, low scalability, and/or inconsistent and ineffective delivery and transfection. To address these challenges, we present an approach that leverages droplet microfluidics with cell mechanoporation, bringing intracellular delivery to the next level. In our approach, cells and external cargos such as mRNAs and plasmid DNAs are coencapsulated into droplets, and as they pass through a series of narrow constrictions, the cell membrane is mechanically permeabilized where the cargos in the vicinity are internalized via convective solution exchange enhanced by recirculation flows developed in the droplets. Using this principle, we demonstrated a high level of functional macromolecule delivery into various immune cells, including human primary T cells. By utilizing droplets, the cargo consumption was drastically reduced, and near-zero clogging was realized. Furthermore, high scalability without sacrificing cell viability and superior delivery over state-of-the-art methods and benchtop techniques were demonstrated. Notably, the droplet-based intracellular delivery strategy presented here can be further applied to other mechanoporation microfluidic techniques, highlighting its potential for cellular engineering and cell-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byeongju Joo
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeongsoo Hur
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Gi-Beom Kim
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Gyu Yun
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Aram J Chung
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Aranda Hernandez J, Heuer C, Bahnemann J, Szita N. Microfluidic Devices as Process Development Tools for Cellular Therapy Manufacturing. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 179:101-127. [PMID: 34410457 DOI: 10.1007/10_2021_169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cellular therapies are creating a paradigm shift in the biomanufacturing industry. Particularly for autologous therapies, small-scale processing methods are better suited than the large-scale approaches that are traditionally employed in the industry. Current small-scale methods for manufacturing personalized cell therapies, however, are labour-intensive and involve a number of 'open events'. To overcome these challenges, new cell manufacturing platforms following a GMP-in-a-box concept have recently come on the market (GMP: Good Manufacturing Practice). These are closed automated systems with built-in pumps for fluid handling and sensors for in-process monitoring. At a much smaller scale, microfluidic devices exhibit many of the same features as current GMP-in-a-box systems. They are closed systems, fluids can be processed and manipulated, and sensors integrated for real-time detection of process variables. Fabricated from polymers, they can be made disposable, i.e. single-use. Furthermore, microfluidics offers exquisite spatiotemporal control over the cellular microenvironment, promising both reproducibility and control of outcomes. In this chapter, we consider the challenges in cell manufacturing, highlight recent advances of microfluidic devices for each of the main process steps, and summarize our findings on the current state of the art. As microfluidic cell culture devices have been reported for both adherent and suspension cell cultures, we report on devices for the key process steps, or unit operations, of both stem cell therapies and cell-based immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher Heuer
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Janina Bahnemann
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Nicolas Szita
- Biochemical Engineering Department, University College London (UCL), London, UK.
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Hur J, Chung AJ. Microfluidic and Nanofluidic Intracellular Delivery. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:e2004595. [PMID: 34096197 PMCID: PMC8336510 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202004595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Innate cell function can be artificially engineered and reprogrammed by introducing biomolecules, such as DNAs, RNAs, plasmid DNAs, proteins, or nanomaterials, into the cytosol or nucleus. This process of delivering exogenous cargos into living cells is referred to as intracellular delivery. For instance, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 gene editing begins with internalizing Cas9 protein and guide RNA into cells, and chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells are prepared by delivering CAR genes into T lymphocytes for cancer immunotherapies. To deliver external biomolecules into cells, tools, including viral vectors, and electroporation have been traditionally used; however, they are suboptimal for achieving high levels of intracellular delivery while preserving cell viability, phenotype, and function. Notably, as emerging solutions, microfluidic and nanofluidic approaches have shown remarkable potential for addressing this open challenge. This review provides an overview of recent advances in microfluidic and nanofluidic intracellular delivery strategies and discusses new opportunities and challenges for clinical applications. Furthermore, key considerations for future efforts to develop microfluidics- and nanofluidics-enabled next-generation intracellular delivery platforms are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongsoo Hur
- School of Biomedical EngineeringKorea UniversitySeoul02841Republic of Korea
| | - Aram J. Chung
- School of Biomedical EngineeringInterdisciplinary Program in Precision Public HealthKorea UniversitySeoul02841Republic of Korea
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30
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Mertz M, Castiglione K. Increased Protein Encapsulation in Polymersomes with Hydrophobic Membrane Anchoring Peptides in a Scalable Process. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7134. [PMID: 34281201 PMCID: PMC8268381 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22137134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hollow vesicles made from a single or double layer of block-copolymer molecules, called polymersomes, represent an important technological platform for new developments in nano-medicine and nano-biotechnology. A central aspect in creating functional polymersomes is their combination with proteins, especially through encapsulation in the inner cavity of the vesicles. When producing polymersomes by techniques such as film rehydration, significant proportions of the proteins used are trapped in the vesicle lumen, resulting in high encapsulation efficiencies. However, because of the difficulty of scaling up, such methods are limited to laboratory experiments and are not suitable for industrial scale production. Recently, we developed a scalable polymersome production process in stirred-tank reactors, but the statistical encapsulation of proteins resulted in fairly low encapsulation efficiencies of around 0.5%. To increase encapsulation in this process, proteins were genetically fused with hydrophobic membrane anchoring peptides. This resulted in encapsulation efficiencies of up to 25.68%. Since proteins are deposited on the outside and inside of the polymer membrane in this process, two methods for the targeted removal of protein domains by proteolysis with tobacco etch virus protease and intein splicing were evaluated. This study demonstrates the proof-of-principle for production of protein-functionalized polymersomes in a scalable process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kathrin Castiglione
- Institute of Bioprocess Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91052 Erlangen, Germany;
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31
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Jarrell JA, Sytsma BJ, Wilson LH, Pan FL, Lau KHWJ, Kirby GTS, Lievano AA, Pawell RS. Numerical optimization of microfluidic vortex shedding for genome editing T cells with Cas9. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11818. [PMID: 34083685 PMCID: PMC8175688 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91307-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Microfluidic vortex shedding (µVS) can rapidly deliver mRNA to T cells with high yield and minimal perturbation of the cell state. The mechanistic underpinning of µVS intracellular delivery remains undefined and µVS-Cas9 genome editing requires further studies. Herein, we evaluated a series of µVS devices containing splitter plates to attenuate vortex shedding and understand the contribution of computed force and frequency on efficiency and viability. We then selected a µVS design to knockout the expression of the endogenous T cell receptor in primary human T cells via delivery of Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) with and without brief exposure to an electric field (eµVS). µVS alone resulted in an equivalent yield of genome-edited T cells relative to electroporation with improved cell quality. A 1.8-fold increase in editing efficiency was demonstrated with eµVS with negligible impact on cell viability. Herein, we demonstrate efficient processing of 5 × 106 cells suspend in 100 µl of cGMP OptiMEM in under 5 s, with the capacity of a single device to process between 106 to 108 in 1 to 30 s. Cumulatively, these results demonstrate the rapid and robust utility of µVS and eµVS for genome editing human primary T cells with Cas9 RNPs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Giles T S Kirby
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
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32
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Ramirez-Phillips AC, Liu D. Therapeutic Genome Editing and In Vivo Delivery. AAPS JOURNAL 2021; 23:80. [PMID: 34080099 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-021-00613-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Improvements in the understanding of human genetics and its roles in disease development and prevention have led to an increased interest in therapeutic genome editing via the use of engineered nucleases. Various approaches have been explored in the past focusing on the development of an effective and safe system for sequence-specific editing. Compared to earlier nucleases such as zinc finger nuclease and transcription activator-like effector nuclease, the relatively low cost and ease of producing clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) systems have made therapeutic genome editing significantly more feasible. CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing has shown great potential to correct genetic mutations implicated in monogenic diseases and to eradicate latent or chronic viral infections in preclinical studies. Several CRISPR/Cas9-based therapeutics have reached the clinical stage, including treatments for inherited red blood cell disorders and Leber Congenital Amaurosis 10, as well as CRISPR/Cas9-edited T cells designed to target and destroy cancer cells. Further advances in therapeutic genome editing will rely on a safe and more efficient method of in vivo CRISPR/Cas9 delivery and improved efficiency of homology-directed repair for site-specific gene insertion or replacement. While other reviews have focused on one or two aspects of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, this review aims to provide a summary of the mechanisms of genome editing, the reasons for the emerging interest in CRISPR/Cas9 compared to other engineered nucleases, the current progress in developing CRISPR/Cas9 delivery systems, and the current preclinical and clinical applications of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dexi Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA.
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33
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Xie F, Qian X, Li N, Cui D, Zhang H, Xu Z. In vitro and in vivo studies on the biocompatibility of a self-powered pacemaker with a flexible buckling piezoelectric vibration energy harvester for rats. ANNALS OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2021; 9:800. [PMID: 34268413 PMCID: PMC8246189 DOI: 10.21037/atm-21-1707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Background Scavenging energy from biomechanical motions in vivo by energy converting devices, i.e., implantable harvesters, to obtain sustainable electrical energy is the ideal way to power implantable medical devices which require long term and continuous power supply. A novel self-powered cardiac pacemaker is designed to achieve self-powered pacing. The kinetic energy of the heart was collected by an implanted piezoelectric energy collector and supplied to the cardiac pacemaker, and then the cardiac tissue was stimulated by the pacing electrode pierced from the outside of the heart to realize effective pacing effect and self-powered pacing. In this study, we evaluated the stability and biocompatibility of our previously described flexible buckling piezoelectric vibration energy harvester in vitro and in vivo. The biocompatibility, in vivo stability, and safety of the self-powered pacemaker with a flexible flexion piezoelectric vibratory energy harvesting device prepared were analyzed by performing cell and in vivo animal experiments. Methods The MTT(3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay was used to detect the cell proliferation of H9C2 cells and HUVECs at 24, 48, and 72 hours. Computed tomography (CT) and cardiac ultrasound were used to evaluate the position and heart rate of pacemakers 12 weeks after implantation, and the changes of plasma biochemical indexes were detected by a biochemical detector. Results At 12 weeks after implantation, CT results showed that there were no changes in the position of the self-powered pacemaker. The device implanted into the thoracic cavity of rats demonstrated certain effects on cardiac function, while it did not have a significant effect on their blood biochemical indexes. Conclusions the flexible buckling piezoelectric vibratory energy collector did not produce adverse effects on the myocardial tissue or on the normal proliferation of myocardial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Xie
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Changhai Hospital, Naval Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoqing Qian
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Instrument Science & Engineering, School of Electronic Information & Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Intelligent Diagnosis & Treatment Instrument, Institute of Nano Biomedicine & Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ning Li
- Institute of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Daxiang Cui
- Department of Instrument Science & Engineering, School of Electronic Information & Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Intelligent Diagnosis & Treatment Instrument, Institute of Nano Biomedicine & Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Institute of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhiyun Xu
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Changhai Hospital, Naval Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.,Institute of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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34
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Raes L, De Smedt SC, Raemdonck K, Braeckmans K. Non-viral transfection technologies for next-generation therapeutic T cell engineering. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 49:107760. [PMID: 33932532 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Genetically engineered T cells have sparked interest in advanced cancer treatment, reaching a milestone in 2017 with two FDA-approvals for CD19-directed chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapeutics. It is becoming clear that the next generation of CAR T cell therapies will demand more complex engineering strategies and combinations thereof, including the use of revolutionary gene editing approaches. To date, manufacturing of CAR T cells mostly relies on γ-retroviral or lentiviral vectors, but their use is associated with several drawbacks, including safety issues, high manufacturing cost and vector capacity constraints. Non-viral approaches, including membrane permeabilization and carrier-based techniques, have therefore gained a lot of interest to replace viral transductions in the manufacturing of T cell therapeutics. This review provides an in-depth discussion on the avid search for alternatives to viral vectors, discusses key considerations for T cell engineering technologies, and provides an overview of the emerging spectrum of non-viral transfection technologies for T cells. Strengths and weaknesses of each technology will be discussed in relation to T cell engineering. Altogether, this work emphasizes the potential of non-viral transfection approaches to advance the next-generation of genetically engineered T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurens Raes
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry & Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stefaan C De Smedt
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry & Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Koen Raemdonck
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry & Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kevin Braeckmans
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry & Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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35
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Atsavapranee ES, Billingsley MM, Mitchell MJ. Delivery technologies for T cell gene editing: Applications in cancer immunotherapy. EBioMedicine 2021; 67:103354. [PMID: 33910123 PMCID: PMC8099660 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
While initial approaches to adoptive T cell therapy relied on the identification and expansion of rare tumour-reactive T cells, genetic engineering has transformed cancer immunotherapy by enabling the modification of primary T cells to increase their therapeutic potential. Specifically, gene editing technologies have been utilized to create T cell populations with improved responses to antigens, lower rates of exhaustion, and potential for use in allogeneic applications. In this review, we provide an overview of T cell therapy gene editing strategies and the delivery technologies utilized to genetically engineer T cells. We also discuss recent investigations and clinical trials that have utilized gene editing to enhance the efficacy of T cells and broaden the application of cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ella S Atsavapranee
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | | | - Michael J Mitchell
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Cardiovascular Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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36
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Torres-Ortega PV, Smerdou C, Ansorena E, Ballesteros-Briones MC, Martisova E, Garbayo E, Blanco-Prieto MJ. Optimization of a GDNF production method based on Semliki Forest virus vector. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 159:105726. [PMID: 33482318 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.105726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Human glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (hGDNF) is the most potent dopaminergic factor described so far, and it is therefore considered a promising drug for Parkinson's disease (PD) treatment. However, the production of therapeutic proteins with a high degree of purity and a specific glycosylation pattern is a major challenge that hinders its commercialization. Although a variety of systems can be used for protein production, only a small number of them are suitable to produce clinical-grade proteins. Specifically, the baby hamster kidney cell line (BHK-21) has shown to be an effective system for the expression of high levels of hGDNF, with appropriate post-translational modifications and protein folding. This system, which is based on the electroporation of BHK-21 cells using a Semliki Forest virus (SFV) as expression vector, induces a strong shut-off of host cell protein synthesis that simplify the purification process. However, SFV vector exhibits a temperature-dependent cytopathic effect on host cells, which could limit hGDNF expression. The aim of this study was to improve the expression and purification of hGDNF using a biphasic temperature cultivation protocol that would decrease the cytopathic effect induced by SFV. Here we show that an increase in the temperature from 33°C to 37°C during the "shut-off period", produced a significant improvement in cell survival and hGDNF expression. In consonance, this protocol led to the production of almost 3-fold more hGDNF when compared to the previously described methods. Therefore, a "recovery period" at 37°C before cells are exposed at 33°C is crucial to maintain cell viability and increase hGDNF expression. The protocol described constitutes an efficient and highly scalable method to produce highly pure hGDNF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Vicente Torres-Ortega
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, C/ Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, C/ Irunlarrea 3, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Cristian Smerdou
- Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, C/ Irunlarrea 3, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Av. Pío XII 55, 31008, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Eduardo Ansorena
- Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, C/ Irunlarrea 3, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, School of Sciences, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - María Cristina Ballesteros-Briones
- Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, C/ Irunlarrea 3, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Av. Pío XII 55, 31008, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Eva Martisova
- Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, C/ Irunlarrea 3, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Av. Pío XII 55, 31008, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Elisa Garbayo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, C/ Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, C/ Irunlarrea 3, 31008 Pamplona, Spain.
| | - María J Blanco-Prieto
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, C/ Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, C/ Irunlarrea 3, 31008 Pamplona, Spain.
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