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Chavda VP, Balar PC, Vaghela DA, Dodiya P. Unlocking longevity with GLP-1: A key to turn back the clock? Maturitas 2024; 186:108028. [PMID: 38815535 DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2024.108028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 05/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Traditionally known for managing blood sugar, GLP-1, a gut hormone, is emerging as a potential key to both lengthening lifespan and combating age-related ailments. While widely recognized for its role in blood sugar control, GLP-1 is increasingly recognized for its diverse effects on various biological pathways beyond glucose metabolism. Research across organisms and humans suggests that activating GLP-1 receptors significantly impacts cellular processes linked to aging. Its ability to boost mitochondrial function, enhance cellular stress resistance, and quell inflammation hints at its wider influence on aging mechanisms. This intricate interplay between GLP-1 and longevity appears to act through multiple pathways. One key effect is its ability to modulate insulin sensitivity, potentially curbing age-related metabolic issues like type 2 diabetes. Its neuroprotective properties also make it a promising candidate for addressing age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, preclinical studies using GLP-1 analogs or agonists have shown promising results in extending lifespan and improving healthspan in various model organisms. These findings provide a compelling rationale for exploring GLP-1-based interventions in humans to extend healthy aging. However, despite the exciting therapeutic prospects of GLP-1 in promoting longevity, challenges remain. Determining optimal dosages, establishing long-term safety profiles, and investigating potential adverse effects require comprehensive clinical investigations before we can confidently translate these findings to humans. This article emphasises the wide applicability of GLP-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek P Chavda
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, L M College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad 380008, Gujarat, India.
| | - Pankti C Balar
- Pharmacy Section, L M College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad 380008, Gujarat, India
| | - Dixa A Vaghela
- Pharmacy Section, L M College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad 380008, Gujarat, India
| | - Payal Dodiya
- Pharmacy Section, L M College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad 380008, Gujarat, India
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2
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Zago AM, Carvalho FB, Rahmeier FL, Santin M, Guimarães GR, Gutierres JM, da C Fernandes M. Exendin-4 Prevents Memory Loss and Neuronal Death in Rats with Sporadic Alzheimer-Like Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:2631-2652. [PMID: 37919602 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03698-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the neuroprotective effects of exendin-4 (EXE-4), an analog of the glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) on memory and on the neuronal populations that constitute the hippocampus of rats submitted to a sporadic dementia of Alzheimer's type (SDAT). Male Wistar rats received streptozotocin (STZ icv, 3 mg/kg diluted in aCFS, 5 µl/ventricle) and were treated for 21 days with EXE-4 (10 µg/kg, ip; saline as the vehicle). Four groups were formed: vehicle, EXE-4, STZ, and STZ + EXE-4. The groups were submitted to Y-Maze (YM), object recognition (ORT), and object displacement tasks (ODT) to assess learning and memory. The brains were used for immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent techniques with antibodies to NeuN, cleaved caspase-3 (CC3), PCNA, doublecortin (DCX), synaptophysin (SYP), and insulin receptor (IR). STZ worsened spatial memory in the YMT, as well as short-term (STM) and long-term (LTM) memories in the ORT and ODT, respectively. EXE-4 protected against memory impairment in STZ animals. STZ reduced mature neuron density (NeuN) and increased cell apoptosis (CC3) in the DG, CA1, and CA3. EXE-4 protected against neuronal death in all regions. EXE-4 increased PCNA+ cells in all regions of the hippocampus, and STZ attenuated this effect. STZ reduced neurogenesis in DG per se as well as synaptogenesis induced by EXE-4. EXE-4 increased immunoreactivity to IR in the CA1. From these findings, EXE-4 showed a beneficial effect on hippocampal pyramidal and granular neurons in the SDAT showing anti-apoptotic properties and promoting cell proliferation. In parallel, EXE-4 preserved the memory of SDAT rats. EXE-4 appears to enhance synapses at CA3 and DG. In conclusion, these data indicate that agonists to GLP-1R have a beneficial effect on hippocampal neurons in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana M Zago
- Graduate Program in Pathology, Pathology Research Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Sarmento Leite, 245, Room 514, Building 3. CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Fabiano B Carvalho
- Graduate Program in Pathology, Pathology Research Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Sarmento Leite, 245, Room 514, Building 3. CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Francine L Rahmeier
- Graduate Program in Pathology, Pathology Research Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Sarmento Leite, 245, Room 514, Building 3. CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Marta Santin
- Graduate Program in Pathology, Pathology Research Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Sarmento Leite, 245, Room 514, Building 3. CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Giuliano R Guimarães
- Graduate Program in Pathology, Pathology Research Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Sarmento Leite, 245, Room 514, Building 3. CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Jessié M Gutierres
- Graduate Program in Pathology, Pathology Research Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Sarmento Leite, 245, Room 514, Building 3. CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Marilda da C Fernandes
- Graduate Program in Pathology, Pathology Research Laboratory, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Sarmento Leite, 245, Room 514, Building 3. CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Jo D, Ahn SY, Choi SY, Choi Y, Lee DH, Song J. Positive Effects of Adiponectin, BDNF, and GLP-1 on Cortical Neurons Counteracting Palmitic Acid Induced Neurotoxicity. Clin Nutr Res 2024; 13:121-129. [PMID: 38784850 PMCID: PMC11109930 DOI: 10.7762/cnr.2024.13.2.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of metabolic syndrome caused by diets containing excessive fatty acids is increasing worldwide. Patients with metabolic syndrome exhibit abnormal lipid profiles, chronic inflammation, increased levels of saturated fatty acids, impaired insulin sensitivity, excessive fat accumulation, and neuropathological issues such as memory deficits. In particular, palmitic acid (PA) in saturated fatty acids aggravates inflammation, insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance, and synaptic failure. Recently, adiponectin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and glucose-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) have been investigated to find therapeutic solutions for metabolic syndrome, with findings suggesting that they are involved in insulin sensitivity, enhanced lipid profiles, increased neuronal survival, and improved synaptic plasticity. We investigated the effects of adiponectin, BDNF, and GLP-1 on neurite outgrowth, length, and complexity in PA-treated primary cortical neurons using Sholl analysis. Our findings demonstrate the therapeutic potential of adiponectin, BDNF, and GLP-1 in enhancing synaptic plasticity within brains affected by metabolic imbalance. We underscore the need for additional research into the mechanisms by which adiponectin, BDNF, and GLP-1 influence neural complexity in brains with metabolic imbalances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danbi Jo
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Korea
| | - Seo Yeon Ahn
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Korea
- Biomedical Science Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Hwasun 58128, Korea
| | - Seo Yoon Choi
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Korea
- Biomedical Science Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Hwasun 58128, Korea
| | - Yoonjoo Choi
- Department of MRC, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Korea
| | - Dong Hoon Lee
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Chonnam National University Medical School and Hwasun Hospital, Hwasun 58128, Korea
| | - Juhyun Song
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Korea
- Biomedical Science Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Hwasun 58128, Korea
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Jo D, Yoon G, Lim Y, Kim Y, Song J. Profiling and Cellular Analyses of Obesity-Related circRNAs in Neurons and Glia under Obesity-like In Vitro Conditions. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076235. [PMID: 37047207 PMCID: PMC10094513 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence indicates that the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, is associated with metabolic disorders such as diabetes and obesity. Various circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been found in brain tissues and recent studies have suggested that circRNAs are related to neuropathological mechanisms in the brain. However, there is a lack of interest in the involvement of circRNAs in metabolic imbalance-related neuropathological problems until now. Herein we profiled and analyzed diverse circRNAs in mouse brain cell lines (Neuro-2A neurons, BV-2 microglia, and C8-D1a astrocytes) exposed to obesity-related in vitro conditions (high glucose, high insulin, and high levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 6, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, and cholesterol). We observed that various circRNAs were differentially expressed according to cell types with many of these circRNAs conserved in humans. After suppressing the expression of these circRNAs using siRNAs, we observed that these circRNAs regulate genes related to inflammatory responses, formation of synaptic vesicles, synaptic density, and fatty acid oxidation in neurons; scavenger receptors in microglia; and fatty acid signaling, inflammatory signaling cyto that may play important roles in metabolic disorders associated with neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danbi Jo
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwangho Yoon
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeonghwan Lim
- Department of Biochemistry, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngkook Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.K.); (J.S.)
| | - Juhyun Song
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Hwasun 58128, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.K.); (J.S.)
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Type 2 Diabetes and Alzheimer's Disease: The Emerging Role of Cellular Lipotoxicity. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13010183. [PMID: 36671568 PMCID: PMC9855893 DOI: 10.3390/biom13010183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and Alzheimer's diseases (AD) represent major health issues that have reached alarming levels in the last decades. Although growing evidence demonstrates that AD is a significant comorbidity of T2D, and there is a ~1.4-2-fold increase in the risk of developing AD among T2D patients, the involvement of possible common triggers in the pathogenesis of these two diseases remains largely unknown. Of note, recent mechanistic insights suggest that lipotoxicity could represent the missing ring in the pathogenetic mechanisms linking T2D to AD. Indeed, obesity, which represents the main cause of lipotoxicity, has been recognized as a major risk factor for both pathological conditions. Lipotoxicity can lead to inflammation, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, ceramide and amyloid accumulation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, ferroptosis, and autophagy, which are shared biological events in the pathogenesis of T2D and AD. In the current review, we try to provide a critical and comprehensive view of the common molecular pathways activated by lipotoxicity in T2D and AD, attempting to summarize how these mechanisms can drive future research and open the way to new therapeutic perspectives.
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Exendin-4 Attenuates Hepatic Steatosis by Promoting the Autophagy-Lysosomal Pathway. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:4246086. [PMID: 35872844 PMCID: PMC9307340 DOI: 10.1155/2022/4246086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Dysregulated hepatic steatosis may lead to chronic liver inflammation and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Recent studies have suggested that exendin-4, a glucagon-like peptide-1 agonist, may be a promising therapeutic for hepatic steatosis and NASH. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the antihepatic steatosis actions of exendin-4 are not fully clear. Here, we demonstrate that autophagy is activated by either palmitic acid (PA) or oleic acid (OA) in HepG2 cells, and exendin-4 further enhances the autophagy-lysosomal pathway. We show that inhibition of autophagy by shLC3 attenuates exendin-4-mediated antisteatotic activity. Furthermore, expression of a key lysosomal marker, lysosome associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1), is upregulated in OA + exendin-4-treated cells. The colocalization of LAMP1 and LC3 puncta further suggests that autophagic flux was enhanced by the cotreatment. Based on these findings, we conclude that autophagic flux might play an important role in the antisteatotic action of exendin-4.
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Cheng D, Yang S, Zhao X, Wang G. The Role of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists (GLP-1 RA) in Diabetes-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases. Drug Des Devel Ther 2022; 16:665-684. [PMID: 35340338 PMCID: PMC8943601 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s348055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent clinical guidelines have emphasized the importance of screening for cognitive impairment in older adults with diabetes, however, there is still a lack of understanding about the drug therapy. Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) are widely used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes and potential applications may include the treatment of obesity as well as the adjunctive treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus in combination with insulin. Growing evidence suggests that GLP-1 RA has the potential to treat neurodegenerative diseases, particularly in diabetes-related Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD). Here, we review the molecular mechanisms of the neuroprotective effects of GLP-1 RA in diabetes-related degenerative diseases, including AD and PD, and their potential effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dihe Cheng
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuo Yang
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue Zhao
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, People's Republic of China
| | - Guixia Wang
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, People's Republic of China
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Jena PK, Setayesh T, Sheng L, Di Lucente J, Jin LW, Wan YJY. Intestinal Microbiota Remodeling Protects Mice from Western Diet-Induced Brain Inflammation and Cognitive Decline. Cells 2022; 11:cells11030504. [PMID: 35159313 PMCID: PMC8834507 DOI: 10.3390/cells11030504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been shown that the Western diet (WD) induces systemic inflammation and cognitive decline. Moreover, probiotic supplementation and antibiotic treatment reduce diet-induced hepatic inflammation. The current study examines whether shaping the gut microbes by Bifidobacterium infantis (B. infantis) supplementation and antibiotic treatment reduce diet-induced brain inflammation and improve neuroplasticity. Furthermore, the significance of bile acid (BA) signaling in regulating brain inflammation was studied. Mice were fed a control diet (CD) or WD for seven months. B. infantis was supplemented to WD-fed mice to study brain inflammation, lipid, metabolomes, and neuroplasticity measured by long-term potentiation (LTP). Broad-spectrum coverage antibiotics and cholestyramine treatments were performed to study the impact of WD-associated gut microbes and BA in brain inflammation. Probiotic B. infantis supplementation inhibited diet-induced brain inflammation by reducing IL6, TNFα, and CD11b levels. B. infantis improved LTP and increased brain PSD95 and BDNF levels, which were reduced due to WD intake. Additionally, B. infantis reduced cecal cholesterol, brain ceramide and enhanced saturated fatty acids. Moreover, antibiotic treatment, as well as cholestyramine, diminished WD-induced brain inflammatory signaling. Our findings support the theory that intestinal microbiota remodeling by B. infantis reduces brain inflammation, activates BA receptor signaling, and improves neuroplasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prasant Kumar Jena
- Department of Medical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (P.K.J.); (T.S.); (L.S.); (J.D.L.); (L.W.J.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Cedars Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - Tahereh Setayesh
- Department of Medical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (P.K.J.); (T.S.); (L.S.); (J.D.L.); (L.W.J.)
| | - Lili Sheng
- Department of Medical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (P.K.J.); (T.S.); (L.S.); (J.D.L.); (L.W.J.)
| | - Jacopo Di Lucente
- Department of Medical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (P.K.J.); (T.S.); (L.S.); (J.D.L.); (L.W.J.)
| | - Lee Way Jin
- Department of Medical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (P.K.J.); (T.S.); (L.S.); (J.D.L.); (L.W.J.)
| | - Yu-Jui Yvonne Wan
- Department of Medical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (P.K.J.); (T.S.); (L.S.); (J.D.L.); (L.W.J.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-916-734-4293; Fax: +1-916-734-3787
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Lee YY, Wang M, Son Y, Yang EJ, Kang MS, Kim HJ, Kim HS, Jo J. Oat Extract Avenanthramide-C Reverses Hippocampal Long-Term Potentiation Decline in Tg2576 Mice. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26206105. [PMID: 34684684 PMCID: PMC8541156 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26206105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory deterioration in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is thought to be underpinned by aberrant amyloid β (Aβ) accumulation, which contributes to synaptic plasticity impairment. Avenanthramide-C (Avn-C), a polyphenol compound found predominantly in oats, has a range of biological properties. Herein, we performed methanolic extraction of the Avns-rich fraction (Fr. 2) from germinated oats using column chromatography, and examined the effects of Avn-C on synaptic correlates of memory in a mouse model of AD. Avn-C was identified in Fr. 2 based on 1H-NMR analysis. Electrophysiological recordings were performed to examine the effects of Avn-C on the hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) in a Tg2576 mouse model of AD. Avn-C from germinated oats restored impaired LTP in Tg2576 mouse hippocampal slices. Furthermore, Avn-C-facilitated LTP was associated with changes in the protein levels of phospho-glycogen synthase kinase-3β (p-GSK3β-S9) and cleaved caspase 3, which are involved in Aβ-induced synaptic impairment. Our findings suggest that the Avn-C extract from germinated oats may be beneficial for AD-related synaptic plasticity impairment and memory decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Young Lee
- Department of Central Area, National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Suwon 16429, Korea; (Y.S.); (M.-S.K.); (H.-J.K.)
- Correspondence: (Y.-Y.L.); (H.-S.K.); (J.J.)
| | - Ming Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 501-757, Korea;
| | - Yurim Son
- Department of Central Area, National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Suwon 16429, Korea; (Y.S.); (M.-S.K.); (H.-J.K.)
| | - Eun-Ju Yang
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehak-ro, Daegu 41566, Korea;
| | - Moon-Seok Kang
- Department of Central Area, National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Suwon 16429, Korea; (Y.S.); (M.-S.K.); (H.-J.K.)
| | - Hyun-Joo Kim
- Department of Central Area, National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Suwon 16429, Korea; (Y.S.); (M.-S.K.); (H.-J.K.)
| | - Hyung-Seok Kim
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 501-757, Korea
- Center for Creative Biomedical Scientists, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 501-757, Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.-Y.L.); (H.-S.K.); (J.J.)
| | - Jihoon Jo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 501-757, Korea;
- Correspondence: (Y.-Y.L.); (H.-S.K.); (J.J.)
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