Functional characterization and related evolutionary implications of invertebrate gonadotropin-releasing hormone/corazonin in a well-established model species

Characterization of corazonin signaling in a molluscan model species, Lymnaea stagnalis

In recent years, new concepts have emerged regarding the nomenclature, functions, and relationships of different peptide families of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) superfamily. One of the main driving forces for this originated from the emerging evidence that neuropeptides previously called molluscan GnRH are multifunctional and should be classified as corazonin (CRZ). However, research articles still appear that use incorrect nomenclature and attribute the same function to molluscan CRZs as vertebrate GnRHs. The aim of the present study was to further support the recent interpretation of the origin and function of the GnRH superfamily. Towards this goal, we report the characterization of CRZ signaling system in the molluscan model species, the great pond snail (Lymnaea stagnalis). We detected a CRZ-receptor-like sequence (Lym-CRZR) by homology-searching in the Lymnaea transcriptomes and the deduced amino acid sequence showed high sequence similarity to GnRH receptors and CRZ receptors. Molecular phylogenetic tree analysis demonstrated that Lym-CRZR is included in the cluster of molluscan CRZRs. Lym-CRZR transiently transfected into HEK293 cells was found to be localized at the plasma membrane, confirming that it functions as a membrane receptor, like other G protein-coupled receptors. The signaling assays revealed that the previously identified Lym-CRZ neuropeptide stimulated intracellular Ca2+ mobilization in a dose-dependent manner, but not cyclic AMP production, in HEK293 cells transfected with Lym-CRZR. Finally, we demonstrated a wide tissue distribution of Lym-CRZR. These results suggest that Lym-CRZ is a multifunctional peptide and provide further insights into the evolution of the GnRH neuropeptide superfamily. The present study also supports the notion that previously termed molluscan "GnRH" should be classified as "CRZ".

Toxic effects of four emerging pollutants on cardiac performance and associated physiological parameters of the thick-shell mussel (Mytilus coruscus)

Robust cardiac performance is critical for the health and even survival of an animal; however, it is sensitive to environmental stressors. At present, little is known about the cardiotoxicity of emerging pollutants to bivalve mollusks. Thus, in this study, the cardiotoxic effects of four emergent pollutants, carbamazepine (CBZ), bisphenol A (BPA), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), on the thick-shell mussel, Mytilus coruscus, were evaluated by heartbeat monitoring and histological examinations. In addition, the impacts of these pollutants on parameters that closely related to cardiac function including neurotransmitters, calcium homeostasis, energy supply, and oxidative status were assessed. Our results demonstrated that 28-day exposure of the thick-shell mussel to these pollutants resulted in evident heart tissue lesions (indicated by hemocyte infiltration and myocardial fibrosis) and disruptions of cardiac performance (characterized by bradyrhythmia and arrhythmia). In addition to obstructing neurotransmitters and calcium homeostasis, exposure to pollutants also led to constrained energy supply and induced oxidative stress in mussel hearts. These findings indicate that although do differ somehow in their effects, these four pollutants may exert cardiotoxic impacts on mussels, which could pose severe threats to this important species and therefore deserves more attention.

Peptidergic modulation of a multi-functional central pattern generator in the pulmonate snail

Egg laying in pulmonate snails is a well-orchestrated process that involves a period of reduced locomotion, followed by substrate cleaning with rhythmic rasping of the surface to make tiny grooves, into which eggs are deposited. Although the neurohormonal control of initiating egg laying has been well established, the signals that modulate the buccal central pattern generator to substrate cleaning during egg laying are not known. Neuropeptides of the invertebrate gonadotropin-releasing hormone/corazonin family (invGnRH/CRZ) have been shown to be involved in reproduction and allied behaviors in many vertebrates and invertebrates. Here, we show that the buccal motor pattern underlying substrate cleaning during egg laying is altered by a vertebrate GnRH agonist. Signals from the intestinal nerve innervating reproductive structures, previously shown to be both necessary and sufficient for egg-laying behaviors, are blocked by a vertebrate GnRH antagonist. Further, the vertebrate GnRH-triggered response elicits rhythmic, phase 2 and non-phase 2 activity in the buccal motor pattern, with a shutdown of phase 3, indicative of repetitive rasping without accompanied swallowing behavior. Using immunohistochemistry, intracellular electrophysiology and extracellular nerve stimulation, we show that a member of the invGnRH/CRZ family of neuropeptides could be the signal that contextually switches the multifunctional buccal CPG to a biphasic rasping rhythm that underlies substrate cleaning behavior during egg laying in the pulmonate snail Planorbella (Helisoma) trivolvis.

Studies on a widely-recognized snail model species (Lymnaea stagnalis) provide further evidence that vertebrate steroids do not have a hormonal role in the reproduction of mollusks

Experiments were carried out to determine whether, as with other mollusks that have been studied, the snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, can absorb, esterify and store vertebrate steroids that are present in the water. We also carried out experiments to determine whether neural tissues of the snail could be immunohistochemically stained with an antibody to human aromatase (a key enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of testosterone [T] to 17β-estradiol [E₂]); and, if so, to determine the significance of such staining. Previous studies on other mollusks have reported such staining and have proposed this as decisive evidence that mollusks have the same steroid synthesis pathway as vertebrates. We found that snails absorb, esterify and retain esterified T, E₂, progesterone and ethinyl-estradiol (albeit with an absorption rate about four times slower, on a weight basis, than the mussel, Mytilus edulis). We also found that not only anti-human aromatase, but also anti-human nuclear progesterone receptor (nPR) and anti-human gonadotropin-releasing hormone antibodies immunohistochemically stained snail neural cells. However, further experiments, involving gel electrophoretic separation, followed by immunostaining, of proteins extracted from the neural tissue, found at least two positively-stained bands for each antibody, none of which had masses matching the human proteins to which the antibodies had been raised. The anti-aromatase antibody even stained the 140 kDA ladder protein used as a molecular weight marker on the gels. Mass spectrometric analysis of the bands did not find any peptide sequences that corresponded to the human proteins. Our findings confirm that the presence of vertebrate-like sex steroids in molluscan tissues is not necessarily evidence of endogenous origin. The results also show that immunohistochemical studies using antibodies against human proteins are grossly non-specific and likely to have little or no value in studying steroid synthesis or activity in mollusks. Our conclusions are consistent with the fact that genes for aromatase and nPR have not been found in the genome of the snail or of any other mollusk. Our overarching conclusion, from this and our previous studies, is that the endocrinology of mollusks is not the same as that of humans or any other vertebrates and that continuing to carry out physiological and ecotoxicological studies on mollusks on the basis of this false assumption, is an unconscionable waste of resources.