1
|
Chen YC, Destouches L, Cook A, Fedorec AJH. Synthetic microbial ecology: engineering habitats for modular consortia. J Appl Microbiol 2024; 135:lxae158. [PMID: 38936824 DOI: 10.1093/jambio/lxae158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Microbiomes, the complex networks of micro-organisms and the molecules through which they interact, play a crucial role in health and ecology. Over at least the past two decades, engineering biology has made significant progress, impacting the bio-based industry, health, and environmental sectors; but has only recently begun to explore the engineering of microbial ecosystems. The creation of synthetic microbial communities presents opportunities to help us understand the dynamics of wild ecosystems, learn how to manipulate and interact with existing microbiomes for therapeutic and other purposes, and to create entirely new microbial communities capable of undertaking tasks for industrial biology. Here, we describe how synthetic ecosystems can be constructed and controlled, focusing on how the available methods and interaction mechanisms facilitate the regulation of community composition and output. While experimental decisions are dictated by intended applications, the vast number of tools available suggests great opportunity for researchers to develop a diverse array of novel microbial ecosystems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Casey Chen
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Louie Destouches
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Alice Cook
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Alex J H Fedorec
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Catania S, Bottinelli M, Fincato A, Tondo A, Matucci A, Nai G, Righetti V, Abbate F, Ramírez AS, Gobbo F, Merenda M. Pathogenic avian mycoplasmas show phenotypic differences in their biofilm forming ability compared to non-pathogenic species in vitro. Biofilm 2024; 7:100190. [PMID: 38515541 PMCID: PMC10955283 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2024.100190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasmas are known as the minimalist microorganisms in the microbes' world. Their minimalist nature makes them highly sensitive to the environmental conditions and limits their ability to survive for extended periods outside their animal host. Nevertheless, there are documented instances of mycoplasma transmission over significant distances and this phenomenon may be linked to relatively unexplored abilities of mycoplasmas, such as their capacity to synthesize biofilm-the predominant mode of bacterial growth in nature. The authors decided to establish a method aimed at inducing the clustering of mycoplasma planktonic cells within a biofilm in vitro and subsequently assess the capacity of certain avian mycoplasmas to synthesize a biofilm. A total of 299 avian mycoplasma isolates were included in the study, encompassing both pathogenic (Mycoplasma gallisepticum, M. synoviae, M. meleagridis, M. iowae) and non-pathogenic species (M. gallinaceum, M. gallinarum, M. iners and M. pullorum). The authors successfully demonstrated the feasibility of inducing avian mycoplasmas to synthetize in vitro a biofilm, which can be visually quantified. The only species that did not produce any biofilm was M. iowae. In general, the pathogenic mycoplasmas produced greater quantities of biofilm compared to the non-pathogenic ones. Furthermore, it was observed that the ability to produce biofilm appeared to vary, both qualitatively and quantitatively, not only among different species but also among isolates of a single species. Future studies will be necessary to determine whether biofilm production plays a pivotal epidemiological role for the pathogenic avian mycoplasmas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Catania
- Unità Micoplasmi, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Mycoplasmosis (M. Gallisepticum, M. Synoviae), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 37060, Buttapietra, (VR), Italy
| | - Marco Bottinelli
- Unità Micoplasmi, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Mycoplasmosis (M. Gallisepticum, M. Synoviae), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 37060, Buttapietra, (VR), Italy
| | - Alice Fincato
- Unità Micoplasmi, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Mycoplasmosis (M. Gallisepticum, M. Synoviae), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 37060, Buttapietra, (VR), Italy
| | - Annalucia Tondo
- Unità Micoplasmi, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Mycoplasmosis (M. Gallisepticum, M. Synoviae), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 37060, Buttapietra, (VR), Italy
| | - Andrea Matucci
- Unità Micoplasmi, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Mycoplasmosis (M. Gallisepticum, M. Synoviae), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 37060, Buttapietra, (VR), Italy
| | - Giorgia Nai
- Unità Micoplasmi, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Mycoplasmosis (M. Gallisepticum, M. Synoviae), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 37060, Buttapietra, (VR), Italy
| | - Verdiana Righetti
- Unità Micoplasmi, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Mycoplasmosis (M. Gallisepticum, M. Synoviae), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 37060, Buttapietra, (VR), Italy
| | - Francesco Abbate
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Università di Messina, 98168, Messina, ME, Italy
| | - Ana S. Ramírez
- Unidad de Epidemiología y Medicina Preventiva, Instituto Universitario de Sanidad Animal y Seguridad Alimentaria (IUSA), Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35413, Arucas, Spain
| | - Federica Gobbo
- Unità Micoplasmi, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Mycoplasmosis (M. Gallisepticum, M. Synoviae), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 37060, Buttapietra, (VR), Italy
| | - Marianna Merenda
- Unità Micoplasmi, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Avian Mycoplasmosis (M. Gallisepticum, M. Synoviae), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 37060, Buttapietra, (VR), Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lessa Belone MC, Brosens D, Kokko M, Sarlin E. Effects of mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge on different polymers: Perspectives on the potential of the treatment to degrade microplastics. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:168014. [PMID: 37871819 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Sewage sludge is produced during municipal wastewater treatment and can be further treated to be used for soil applications due to its high nutrient and carbon content. Anaerobic digestion is often used to manage sewage sludge. However, sewage sludge has a high load of microplastics that can be transferred to the soil, causing a burden to the environment. Some researchers suggest that anaerobic digestion could be used as a method to remove microplastics from sewage sludge, while others have shown the opposite. In this study, a variety of commodity polymers (LLDPE, HDPE, PP, PS, PET, uPVC, PA66 and SBR) are tested under mesophilic (35 °C) and thermophilic (55 °C) anaerobic digestion to evaluate their degradation after the process. As 1 mm thick sheets of polymers were used, in terms of diffusion they were considered to correspond to microplastics. Different characterization methods were used to access the visual, chemical, mechanical and thermal changes caused by anaerobic digestion. The results showed evidence of polymer degradation, for example, surface smoothening of LLDPE, HDPE and PP, embrittlement of PS and uPVC, hydrolysis of PET, plasticization of PA66, and surface cracking of SBR. However, although some changes in properties happened, anaerobic digestion could not comprehensively degrade the studied polymers. Therefore, this study suggests that anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge, at the conditions tested, is not able to be used as a method to eliminate microplastics from the sewage sludge before it is added to the soil.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Clara Lessa Belone
- Tampere University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, PO Box 589, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland.
| | - Dries Brosens
- Tampere University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, PO Box 589, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Marika Kokko
- Tampere University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, PO Box 589, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland.
| | - Essi Sarlin
- Tampere University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, PO Box 589, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cheah H, Bae S. Multichannel Microfluidic Platform for Temporal-Spatial Investigation of Niche Roles of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli within a Dual-Species Biofilm. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0065123. [PMID: 37382537 PMCID: PMC10370331 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00651-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In natural or man-made environments, microorganisms exist predominantly as biofilms forming surface-associated bacterial communities embedded in extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). Often, biofilm reactors used for endpoint and disruptive analyses of biofilm are not suitable for periodic observation of biofilm formation and development. In this study, a microfluidic device designed with multiple channels and a gradient generator was used for high-throughput analysis and real-time monitoring of dual-species biofilm formation and development. We compared the structural parameters of monospecies and dual-species biofilms containing Pseudomonas aeruginosa (expressing mCherry) and Escherichia coli (expressing green fluorescent protein [GFP]) to understand the interactions in the biofilm. The rate of biovolume increase of each species in monospecies biofilm (2.7 × 105 μm3) was higher than those in a dual-species biofilm (9.68 × 104 μm3); however, synergism was still observed in the dual-species biofilm due to overall increases in biovolume for both species. Synergism was also observed in a dual-species biofilm, where P. aeruginosa forms a "blanket" over E. coli, providing a physical barrier against shear stress in the environment. The microfluidic chip was useful for monitoring the dual-species biofilm in the microenvironment, indicating that different species in a multispecies biofilm exhibit different niches for the survival of the biofilm community. Finally, we demonstrated that the nucleic acids can be extracted from the dual-species biofilm in situ after biofilm imaging analysis. In addition, gene expression supported that the activation and suppression of different quorum sensing genes resulted in the different phenotype seen in the biofilm. This study showed that the integration of microfluidic device with microscopy analysis and molecular techniques could be a promising tool for studying biofilm structure and gene quantification and expression simultaneously. IMPORTANCE In natural or man-made environments, microorganisms exist predominantly as biofilms forming surface-associated bacterial communities embedded in extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). Often, biofilm reactors used for endpoint and disruptive analyses of biofilm are not suitable for periodic observation of biofilm formation and development. Here, we demonstrate that a microfluidic device with multiple channels and a gradient generator can be useful for high-throughput analysis and real-time monitoring of dual-species biofilm formation and development. Our study revealed synergism in the dual-species biofilm, where P. aeruginosa forms a "blanket" over E. coli, providing a physical barrier against shear stress in the environment. Furthermore, different species in a multispecies biofilm exhibit different niches for the survival of the biofilm community. This study showed that the integration of microfluidic device with microscopy analysis and molecular techniques could be a promising tool for studying biofilm structure and gene quantification and expression simultaneously.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hee Cheah
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sungwoo Bae
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gorina LG, Krylova NA, Rakovskaya IV, Geppe NA, Gamova NA, Barkhatova OI. Mechanisms of Long-Term Persistence of Mycoplasmas in Children with Asthma. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1683. [PMID: 37512855 PMCID: PMC10383847 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11071683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Improving the management of children with asthma associated with mycoplasma infection is important. Aim: To study the duration of the persistence of antigens, and DNA in a free state, in the structures of circulating immune complexes (CICs) and living cells of Mycoplasma pneumoniae (Mpn) and Mycoplasma hominis (Mh) in children with asthma. In total, 205 children with asthma from 1 to 14 years were observed. The reaction of aggregate-hemagglutination (AHAA), the direct immunofluorescence reaction (DIF), the reaction of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and the culture method were used. In addition, 47 children were re-examined 1.5 months after the treatment of mycoplasma infection with azithromycin. The number of samples positive for antigens and DNA in the free state and in the structures of CICs significantly decreased. Then, 50 blood serum samples containing Mh antigens, and 50 samples containing Mpn antigens were analyzed by culture method. Mh was isolated in 21 (65.5%) of 32 samples containing DNA. Mpn was isolated from antigen-positive samples in nine cases. The presented data indicate the long-term persistence of antigens, and DNA of mycoplasma cells in the free state, in the structure of CICs, as well as in the form of "microcolonies". A high level of CICs can be used to predict the course of the disease and the response to therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luisa G Gorina
- Gamaleya National Research Center of Epidemiology and Microbiology, 123098 Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalya A Krylova
- Department of Childhood Diseases Sechenov, First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 119435 Moscow, Russia
| | - Irina V Rakovskaya
- Gamaleya National Research Center of Epidemiology and Microbiology, 123098 Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalia A Geppe
- Department of Childhood Diseases Sechenov, First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 119435 Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalia A Gamova
- Gamaleya National Research Center of Epidemiology and Microbiology, 123098 Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga I Barkhatova
- Gamaleya National Research Center of Epidemiology and Microbiology, 123098 Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Perez-Gonzalez G, Tompsett GA, Mastalerz K, Timko MT, Goodell B. Interaction of oxalate with β-glucan: Implications for the fungal extracellular matrix, and metabolite transport. iScience 2023; 26:106851. [PMID: 37275522 PMCID: PMC10232728 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
β-glucan is the major component of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of many fungi, including wood degrading fungi. Many of these species also secrete oxalate into the ECM. Our research demonstrates that β-glucan forms a novel, previously unreported, hydrogel at room temperature with oxalate. Oxalate was found to alter the rheometric properties of the β-glucan hydrogels, and modeling showed that β-glucan hydrogen bonds with oxalate in a non-covalent matrix. Change of oxalate concentration also impacted the diffusion of a high-molecular-weight protein through the gels. This finding has relevance to the diffusion of extracellular enzymes into substrates and helps to explain why some types of wood-decay fungi rely on non-enzymatic degradation schemes for carbon cycling. Further, this research has potential impact on the diffusion of metabolites in association with pathogenic/biomedical fungi.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Geoffrey A. Tompsett
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA 01609, USA
| | - Kyle Mastalerz
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Michael T. Timko
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA 01609, USA
| | - Barry Goodell
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhang J, Li C, Rahaman MM, Yao Y, Ma P, Zhang J, Zhao X, Jiang T, Grzegorzek M. A Comprehensive Survey with Quantitative Comparison of Image Analysis Methods for Microorganism Biovolume Measurements. ARCHIVES OF COMPUTATIONAL METHODS IN ENGINEERING : STATE OF THE ART REVIEWS 2022; 30:639-673. [PMID: 36091717 PMCID: PMC9446599 DOI: 10.1007/s11831-022-09811-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
With the acceleration of urbanization and living standards, microorganisms play an increasingly important role in industrial production, bio-technique, and food safety testing. Microorganism biovolume measurements are one of the essential parts of microbial analysis. However, traditional manual measurement methods are time-consuming and challenging to measure the characteristics precisely. With the development of digital image processing techniques, the characteristics of the microbial population can be detected and quantified. The applications of the microorganism biovolume measurement method have developed since the 1980s. More than 62 articles are reviewed in this study, and the articles are grouped by digital image analysis methods with time. This study has high research significance and application value, which can be referred to as microbial researchers to comprehensively understand microorganism biovolume measurements using digital image analysis methods and potential applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Zhang
- Microscopic Image and Medical Image Analysis Group, College of Medicine and Biological Information Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110169 China
| | - Chen Li
- Microscopic Image and Medical Image Analysis Group, College of Medicine and Biological Information Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110169 China
| | - Md Mamunur Rahaman
- Microscopic Image and Medical Image Analysis Group, College of Medicine and Biological Information Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110169 China
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Yudong Yao
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030 USA
| | - Pingli Ma
- Microscopic Image and Medical Image Analysis Group, College of Medicine and Biological Information Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110169 China
| | - Jinghua Zhang
- Microscopic Image and Medical Image Analysis Group, College of Medicine and Biological Information Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110169 China
- Institute of Medical Informatics, University of Luebeck, Luebeck, 23538 Germany
| | - Xin Zhao
- School of Resources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110004 China
| | - Tao Jiang
- School of Intelligent Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610225 China
| | - Marcin Grzegorzek
- Institute of Medical Informatics, University of Luebeck, Luebeck, 23538 Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Dawood A, Algharib SA, Zhao G, Zhu T, Qi M, Delai K, Hao Z, Marawan MA, Shirani I, Guo A. Mycoplasmas as Host Pantropic and Specific Pathogens: Clinical Implications, Gene Transfer, Virulence Factors, and Future Perspectives. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:855731. [PMID: 35646746 PMCID: PMC9137434 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.855731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasmas as economically important and pantropic pathogens can cause similar clinical diseases in different hosts by eluding host defense and establishing their niches despite their limited metabolic capacities. Besides, enormous undiscovered virulence has a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of pathogenic mycoplasmas. On the other hand, they are host-specific pathogens with some highly pathogenic members that can colonize a vast number of habitats. Reshuffling mycoplasmas genetic information and evolving rapidly is a way to avoid their host's immune system. However, currently, only a few control measures exist against some mycoplasmosis which are far from satisfaction. This review aimed to provide an updated insight into the state of mycoplasmas as pathogens by summarizing and analyzing the comprehensive progress, current challenge, and future perspectives of mycoplasmas. It covers clinical implications of mycoplasmas in humans and domestic and wild animals, virulence-related factors, the process of gene transfer and its crucial prospects, the current application and future perspectives of nanotechnology for diagnosing and curing mycoplasmosis, Mycoplasma vaccination, and protective immunity. Several questions remain unanswered and are recommended to pay close attention to. The findings would be helpful to develop new strategies for basic and applied research on mycoplasmas and facilitate the control of mycoplasmosis for humans and various species of animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Dawood
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Department of Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City, Sadat City, Egypt
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
| | - Samah Attia Algharib
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, HZAU, Wuhan, China
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Toukh, Egypt
| | - Gang Zhao
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Tingting Zhu
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Mingpu Qi
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Kong Delai
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhiyu Hao
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Marawan A. Marawan
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Toukh, Egypt
| | - Ihsanullah Shirani
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- Para-Clinic Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Jalalabad, Afghanistan
| | - Aizhen Guo
- The State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, (HZAU), Wuhan, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, China
- Hubei International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Veterinary Epidemiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| |
Collapse
|