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Mahmoodian N, Rezapourian M, Inamdar AA, Kumar K, Fachet M, Hoeschen C. Enabling Low-Dose In Vivo Benchtop X-ray Fluorescence Computed Tomography through Deep-Learning-Based Denoising. J Imaging 2024; 10:127. [PMID: 38921604 PMCID: PMC11204716 DOI: 10.3390/jimaging10060127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
X-ray Fluorescence Computed Tomography (XFCT) is an emerging non-invasive imaging technique providing high-resolution molecular-level data. However, increased sensitivity with current benchtop X-ray sources comes at the cost of high radiation exposure. Artificial Intelligence (AI), particularly deep learning (DL), has revolutionized medical imaging by delivering high-quality images in the presence of noise. In XFCT, traditional methods rely on complex algorithms for background noise reduction, but AI holds promise in addressing high-dose concerns. We present an optimized Swin-Conv-UNet (SCUNet) model for background noise reduction in X-ray fluorescence (XRF) images at low tracer concentrations. Our method's effectiveness is evaluated against higher-dose images, while various denoising techniques exist for X-ray and computed tomography (CT) techniques, only a few address XFCT. The DL model is trained and assessed using augmented data, focusing on background noise reduction. Image quality is measured using peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and structural similarity index (SSIM), comparing outcomes with 100% X-ray-dose images. Results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm yields high-quality images from low-dose inputs, with maximum PSNR of 39.05 and SSIM of 0.86. The model outperforms block-matching and 3D filtering (BM3D), block-matching and 4D filtering (BM4D), non-local means (NLM), denoising convolutional neural network (DnCNN), and SCUNet in both visual inspection and quantitative analysis, particularly in high-noise scenarios. This indicates the potential of AI, specifically the SCUNet model, in significantly improving XFCT imaging by mitigating the trade-off between sensitivity and radiation exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naghmeh Mahmoodian
- Chair of Medical Systems Technology, Institute for Medical Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany; (M.R.); (A.A.I.); (K.K.); (M.F.); (C.H.)
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Kumar K, Fachet M, Hoeschen C. High-Spatial-Resolution Benchtop X-ray Fluorescence Imaging through Bragg-Diffraction-Based Focusing with Bent Mosaic Graphite Crystals: A Simulation Study. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:4733. [PMID: 38731956 PMCID: PMC11083219 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25094733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
X-ray fluorescence imaging (XFI) can localize diagnostic or theranostic entities utilizing nanoparticle (NP)-based probes at high resolution in vivo, in vitro, and ex vivo. However, small-animal benchtop XFI systems demonstrating high spatial resolution (variable from sub-millimeter to millimeter range) in vivo are still limited to lighter elements (i.e., atomic number Z≤45). This study investigates the feasibility of focusing hard X-rays from solid-target tubes using ellipsoidal lens systems composed of mosaic graphite crystals with the aim of enabling high-resolution in vivo XFI applications with mid-Z (42≤Z≤64) elements. Monte Carlo simulations are performed to characterize the proposed focusing-optics concept and provide quantitative predictions of the XFI sensitivity, in silico tumor-bearing mice models loaded with palladium (Pd) and barium (Ba) NPs. Based on simulation results, the minimum detectable total mass of PdNPs per scan position is expected to be on the order of a few hundred nanograms under in vivo conform conditions. PdNP masses as low as 150 ng to 50 ng could be detectable with a resolution of 600 μm when imaging abdominal tumor lesions across a range of low-dose (0.8 μGy) to high-dose (8 μGy) exposure scenarios. The proposed focusing-optics concept presents a potential step toward realizing XFI with conventional X-ray tubes for high-resolution applications involving interesting NP formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melanie Fachet
- Chair of Medical Systems Technology, Institute for Medical Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany; (K.K.)
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Arsana KGY, Saladino GM, Brodin B, Toprak MS, Hertz HM. Laboratory Liquid-Jet X-ray Microscopy and X-ray Fluorescence Imaging for Biomedical Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:920. [PMID: 38255992 PMCID: PMC10815599 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25020920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Diffraction-limited resolution and low penetration depth are fundamental constraints in optical microscopy and in vivo imaging. Recently, liquid-jet X-ray technology has enabled the generation of X-rays with high-power intensities in laboratory settings. By allowing the observation of cellular processes in their natural state, liquid-jet soft X-ray microscopy (SXM) can provide morphological information on living cells without staining. Furthermore, X-ray fluorescence imaging (XFI) permits the tracking of contrast agents in vivo with high elemental specificity, going beyond attenuation contrast. In this study, we established a methodology to investigate nanoparticle (NP) interactions in vitro and in vivo, solely based on X-ray imaging. We employed soft (0.5 keV) and hard (24 keV) X-rays for cellular studies and preclinical evaluations, respectively. Our results demonstrated the possibility of localizing NPs in the intracellular environment via SXM and evaluating their biodistribution with in vivo multiplexed XFI. We envisage that laboratory liquid-jet X-ray technology will significantly contribute to advancing our understanding of biological systems in the field of nanomedical research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Hans M. Hertz
- Department of Applied Physics, Biomedical and X-ray Physics, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden (G.M.S.)
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Staufer T, Körnig C, Liu B, Liu Y, Lanzloth C, Schmutzler O, Bedke T, Machicote A, Parak WJ, Feliu N, Bosurgi L, Huber S, Grüner F. Enabling X-ray fluorescence imaging for in vivo immune cell tracking. Sci Rep 2023; 13:11505. [PMID: 37460665 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38536-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The infiltration of immune cells into sites of inflammation is one key feature of immune mediated inflammatory diseases. A detailed assessment of the in vivo dynamics of relevant cell subtypes could booster the understanding of this disease and the development of novel therapies. We show in detail how advanced X-ray fluorescence imaging enables such quantitative in vivo cell tracking, offering solutions that could pave the way beyond what other imaging modalities provide today. The key for this achievement is a detailed study of the spectral background contribution from multiple Compton scattering in a mouse-scaled object when this is scanned with a monochromatic pencil X-ray beam from a synchrotron. Under optimal conditions, the detection sensitivity is sufficient for detecting local accumulations of the labelled immune cells, hence providing experimental demonstration of in vivo immune cell tracking in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Staufer
- Fachbereich Physik, Universität Hamburg, 22761, Hamburg, Germany.
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), 22761, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Christian Körnig
- Fachbereich Physik, Universität Hamburg, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), 22761, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Beibei Liu
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
- Hamburg Center for Translational Immunology (HCTI), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yang Liu
- Fachbereich Physik, Universität Hamburg, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Clarissa Lanzloth
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
- Protozoa Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Schmutzler
- Fachbereich Physik, Universität Hamburg, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), 22761, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tanja Bedke
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
- Hamburg Center for Translational Immunology (HCTI), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Andres Machicote
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
- Hamburg Center for Translational Immunology (HCTI), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang J Parak
- Fachbereich Physik, Universität Hamburg, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Neus Feliu
- Fraunhofer Center for Applied Nanotechnology (IAP-CAN), 20146, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lidia Bosurgi
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
- Hamburg Center for Translational Immunology (HCTI), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
- Protozoa Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Samuel Huber
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
- Hamburg Center for Translational Immunology (HCTI), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Florian Grüner
- Fachbereich Physik, Universität Hamburg, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), 22761, Hamburg, Germany
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Staufer T, Grüner F. Review of Development and Recent Advances in Biomedical X-ray Fluorescence Imaging. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10990. [PMID: 37446168 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of X-rays for non-invasive imaging has a long history, which has resulted in several well-established methods in preclinical as well as clinical applications, such as tomographic imaging or computed tomography. While projection radiography provides anatomical information, X-ray fluorescence analysis allows quantitative mapping of different elements in samples of interest. Typical applications so far comprise the identification and quantification of different elements and are mostly located in material sciences, archeology and environmental sciences, whereas the use of the technique in life sciences has been strongly limited by intrinsic spectral background issues arising in larger objects, so far. This background arises from multiple Compton-scattering events in the objects of interest and strongly limits the achievable minimum detectable marker concentrations. Here, we review the history and report on the recent promising developments of X-ray fluorescence imaging (XFI) in preclinical applications, and provide an outlook on the clinical translation of the technique, which can be realized by reducing the above-mentioned intrinsic background with dedicated algorithms and by novel X-ray sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Staufer
- Fachbereich Physik, Universität Hamburg and Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Florian Grüner
- Fachbereich Physik, Universität Hamburg and Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
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Gunawan R, Yang M, Lau C. X-RAY MEASUREMENT OF INTRACELLULAR CHLORIDE AND OTHER IONS IN MAMMALIAN CELLS. TALANTA OPEN 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talo.2023.100189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
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FLASHlab@PITZ: New R&D platform with unique capabilities for electron FLASH and VHEE radiation therapy and radiation biology under preparation at PITZ. Phys Med 2022; 104:174-187. [PMID: 36463582 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2022.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
At the Photo Injector Test facility at DESY in Zeuthen (PITZ), an R&D platform for electron FLASH and very high energy electron radiation therapy and radiation biology is being prepared (FLASHlab@PITZ). The beam parameters available at PITZ are worldwide unique. They are based on experiences from 20 + years of developing high brightness beam sources and an ultra-intensive THz light source demonstrator for ps scale electron bunches with up to 5 nC bunch charge at MHz repetition rate in bunch trains of up to 1 ms length, currently 22 MeV (upgrade to 250 MeV planned). Individual bunches can provide peak dose rates up to 1014 Gy/s, and 10 Gy can be delivered within picoseconds. Upon demand, each bunch of the bunch train can be guided to a different transverse location, so that either a "painting" with micro beams (comparable to pencil beam scanning in proton therapy) or a cumulative increase of absorbed dose, using a wide beam distribution, can be realized at the tumor. Full tumor treatment can hence be completed within 1 ms, mitigating organ movement issues. With extremely flexible beam manipulation capabilities, FLASHlab@PITZ will cover the current parameter range of successfully demonstrated FLASH effects and extend the parameter range towards yet unexploited short treatment times and high dose rates. A summary of the plans for FLASHlab@PITZ and the status of its realization will be presented.
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Staufer T, Schulze ML, Schmutzler O, Körnig C, Welge V, Burkhardt T, Vietzke JP, Vogelsang A, Weise JM, Blatt T, Dabrowski O, Falkenberg G, Brückner D, Sanchez-Cano C, Grüner F. Assessing Cellular Uptake of Exogenous Coenzyme Q 10 into Human Skin Cells by X-ray Fluorescence Imaging. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11081532. [PMID: 36009252 PMCID: PMC9405069 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11081532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging is a highly sensitive non-invasive imaging method for detection of small element quantities in objects, from human-sized scales down to single-cell organelles, using various X-ray beam sizes. Our aim was to investigate the cellular uptake and distribution of Q10, a highly conserved coenzyme with antioxidant and bioenergetic properties. Q10 was labeled with iodine (I2-Q10) and individual primary human skin cells were scanned with nano-focused beams. Distribution of I2-Q10 molecules taken up inside the screened individual skin cells was measured, with a clear correlation between individual Q10 uptake and cell size. Experiments revealed that labeling Q10 with iodine causes no artificial side effects as a result of the labeling procedure itself, and thus is a perfect means of investigating bioavailability and distribution of Q10 in cells. In summary, individual cellular Q10 uptake was demonstrated by XRF, opening the path towards Q10 multi-scale tracking for biodistribution studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Staufer
- Universität Hamburg and Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), Institute for Experimental Physics, Faculty for Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Mirja L. Schulze
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Unnastrasse 48, 20245 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Schmutzler
- Universität Hamburg and Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), Institute for Experimental Physics, Faculty for Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christian Körnig
- Universität Hamburg and Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), Institute for Experimental Physics, Faculty for Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Vivienne Welge
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Unnastrasse 48, 20245 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Burkhardt
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Unnastrasse 48, 20245 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jens-Peter Vietzke
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Unnastrasse 48, 20245 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Alexandra Vogelsang
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Unnastrasse 48, 20245 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Julia M. Weise
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Unnastrasse 48, 20245 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Blatt
- Research and Development, Beiersdorf AG, Unnastrasse 48, 20245 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Dabrowski
- Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Polymer Research (IAP), Center for Applied Nanotechnology (CAN), Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gerald Falkenberg
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Dennis Brückner
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Carlos Sanchez-Cano
- DIPC, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza de Euskadi 5, 48009 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Florian Grüner
- Universität Hamburg and Center for Free-Electron Laser Science (CFEL), Institute for Experimental Physics, Faculty for Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
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Enabling Coarse X-ray Fluorescence Imaging Scans with Enlarged Synchrotron Beam by Means of Mosaic Crystal Defocusing Optics. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23094673. [PMID: 35563064 PMCID: PMC9104365 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Trace elements, functionalized nanoparticles and labeled entities can be localized with sub-mm spatial resolution by X-ray fluorescence imaging (XFI). Here, small animals are raster scanned with a pencil-like synchrotron beam of high energy and low divergence and the X-ray fluorescence is recorded with an energy-dispersive detector. The ability to first perform coarse scans to identify regions of interest, followed by a close-up with a sub-mm X-ray beam is desirable, because overall measurement time and X-ray dose absorbed by the (biological) specimen can thus be minimized. However, the size of X-ray beams at synchrotron beamlines is usually strongly dependent on the actual beamline setup and can only be adapted within specific pre-defined limits. Especially, large synchrotron beams are non-trivial to generate. Here, we present the concept of graphite-based, convex reflection optics for the one-dimensional enlargement of a 1 mm wide synchrotron beam by a factor of 5 to 10 within a 1 m distance. Four different optics are tested and characterized and their reflection properties compared to ray tracing simulations. The general shape and size of the measured reflection profiles agree with expectations. Enhancements with respect to homogeneity and efficiency can be expected with improved optics manufacturing. A mouse phantom is used for a proof-of-principle XFI experiment demonstrating the applicability of coarse and fine scans with the suggested optics design.
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