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He X, Su D, Bai X, Yuan C. Chemically Modulating Ceria-Based Artificial Haloperoxidase for Enhanced Antibacterial Activity and Biofilm Inhibition. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:30117-30127. [PMID: 38820308 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c05025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Ceria (CeO2) nanoparticles with haloperoxidase (HPO)-like activity have gained attention as a biologically benign antifoulant. 3,4-Dihydroxy-l-phenylalanine (DOPA), a main composition in mussel foot proteins, plays a crucial role in the biofouling process. However, the impact on the HPO-like activity and antifouling performance of CeO2 nanoparticles when DOPA molecules adsorb on them remains unexplored. This interesting question warrants investigation, particularly considering that it may occur in an actual marine environment. Herein, the interaction between DOPA and CeO2 is explored. Despite the higher Ce3+ fractions and the lower band gap energies due to the electron transfer from DOPA to the CeO2 surface, DOPA still had a slightly negative effect on the HPO-like activity of CeO2 since they decreased the exposed Ce3+ sites. The DOPA-CeO2 nanocomposites with HPO-like activities could kill bacteria and trigger quorum-sensing signaling quenching, achieving a biofilm inhibition performance. Amazingly, 0.1% DOPA-CeO2 nanocomposite exhibited higher antibacterial activity and better biofilm suppression activities due to its HPO-like activity and positive zeta potential. The remarkable results demonstrated that DOPA, as a participant in the biofouling process, could enhance the antibacterial activity and antifouling performance of CeO2 nanoparticles at an appropriate concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan He
- Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology Xiangyang Demonstration Zone, Xiangyang 441000, China
- State Key Laboratory of Maritime Technology and Safety, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China
| | - Dan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Maritime Technology and Safety, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China
| | - Xiuqin Bai
- Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology Xiangyang Demonstration Zone, Xiangyang 441000, China
- State Key Laboratory of Maritime Technology and Safety, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China
| | - Chengqing Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Maritime Technology and Safety, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China
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Hu C, He G, Yang Y, Wang N, Zhang Y, Su Y, Zhao F, Wu J, Wang L, Lin Y, Shao L. Nanomaterials Regulate Bacterial Quorum Sensing: Applications, Mechanisms, and Optimization Strategies. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2306070. [PMID: 38350718 PMCID: PMC11022734 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202306070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Anti-virulence therapy that interferes with bacterial communication, known as "quorum sensing (QS)", is a promising strategy for circumventing bacterial resistance. Using nanomaterials to regulate bacterial QS in anti-virulence therapy has attracted much attention, which is mainly attributed to unique physicochemical properties and excellent designability of nanomaterials. However, bacterial QS is a dynamic and multistep process, and there are significant differences in the specific regulatory mechanisms and related influencing factors of nanomaterials in different steps of the QS process. An in-depth understanding of the specific regulatory mechanisms and related influencing factors of nanomaterials in each step can significantly optimize QS regulatory activity and enhance the development of novel nanomaterials with better comprehensive performance. Therefore, this review focuses on the mechanisms by which nanomaterials regulate bacterial QS in the signal supply (including signal synthesis, secretion, and accumulation) and signal transduction cascade (including signal perception and response) processes. Moreover, based on the two key influencing factors (i.e., the nanomaterial itself and the environment), optimization strategies to enhance the QS regulatory activity are comprehensively summarized. Collectively, applying nanomaterials to regulate bacterial QS is a promising strategy for anti-virulence therapy. This review provides reference and inspiration for further research on the anti-virulence application of nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Hu
- Stomatological Hospital, School of StomatologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhou510280China
| | - Guixin He
- Stomatological Hospital, School of StomatologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhou510280China
| | - Yujun Yang
- Stomatological Hospital, School of StomatologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhou510280China
| | - Ning Wang
- Stomatological Hospital, School of StomatologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhou510280China
| | - Yanli Zhang
- Stomatological Hospital, School of StomatologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhou510280China
| | - Yuan Su
- Stomatological Hospital, School of StomatologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhou510280China
- Stomatology CenterShunde HospitalSouthern Medical University (The First People's Hospital of Shunde)Foshan528399China
| | - Fujian Zhao
- Stomatological Hospital, School of StomatologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhou510280China
| | - Junrong Wu
- Stomatological Hospital, School of StomatologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhou510280China
| | - Linlin Wang
- Hainan General Hospital·Hainan Affiliated Hospital of Hainan medical UniversityHaikou570311China
| | - Yuqing Lin
- Shenzhen Luohu People's HospitalShenzhen518000China
| | - Longquan Shao
- Stomatological Hospital, School of StomatologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhou510280China
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Su D, He X, Zhou J, Yuan C, Bai X. Facet-dependent haloperoxidase-like activities of CeO 2 nanoparticles contribute to their excellent biofilm formation suppression abilities. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 465:133433. [PMID: 38185086 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Biofilms adhering to different surfaces have significant negative impacts in various fields. Cerium oxide nanoparticles can serve as mimics of haloperoxidase for biological biofilm inhibition applications. The regulation of the exposed facet of CeO2 nanoparticles influences their efficiency in various catalytic processes. However, there is still a lack of systematic studies on the facet-dependent haloperoxidase-like activity of CeO2. In the present study, the facet-dependent haloperoxidase activities and antibiofilm performance of CeO2 nanoparticles were elucidated through experiment analysis and density function theory calculation. The as-prepared CeO2 nanoparticles inhibited bacterial survival and catalyzed the oxidative bromination of quorum sensing signaling molecules, achieving biofilm inhibition performance. The antibacterial and biofilm formation suppression abilities were consistent with their haloperoxidase activities. The {111}- and {110}-facet CeO2 nanopolyhedra, as well as the {110}- and {100}-facet CeO2 nanorods, which had higher haloperoxidase activity showed better antibiofilm performance than the {100}-facet CeO2 cubes. The present findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the facet-dependent haloperoxidase-like activity of CeO2. Furthermore, engineering CeO2 morphologies with different crystal facets may represent a novel method for significantly adjusting their haloperoxidase-like activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Maritime Technology and Safety, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China
| | - Xiaoyan He
- State Key Laboratory of Maritime Technology and Safety, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China; Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology Xiangyang Demonstration Zone, Xiangyang 441000, China.
| | - Jiangwei Zhou
- International Student Center, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China
| | - Chengqing Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Maritime Technology and Safety, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China
| | - Xiuqin Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Maritime Technology and Safety, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, China; Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology Xiangyang Demonstration Zone, Xiangyang 441000, China
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Ermakov AM, Afanasyeva VA, Lazukin AV, Shlyapnikov YM, Zhdanova ES, Kolotova AA, Blagodatski AS, Ermakova ON, Chukavin NN, Ivanov VK, Popov AL. Synergistic Antimicrobial Effect of Cold Atmospheric Plasma and Redox-Active Nanoparticles. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2780. [PMID: 37893152 PMCID: PMC10604215 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11102780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cold argon plasma (CAP) and metal oxide nanoparticles are well known antimicrobial agents. In the current study, on an example of Escherichia coli, a series of analyses was performed to assess the antibacterial action of the combination of these agents and to evaluate the possibility of using cerium oxide and cerium fluoride nanoparticles for a combined treatment of bacterial diseases. The joint effect of the combination of cold argon plasma and several metal oxide and fluoride nanoparticles (CeO2, CeF3, WO3) was investigated on a model of E. coli colony growth on agar plates. The mutagenic effect of different CAP and nanoparticle combinations on bacterial DNA was investigated, by means of a blue-white colony assay and RAPD-PCR. The effect on cell wall damage, using atomic force microscopy, was also studied. The results obtained demonstrate that the combination of CAP and redox-active metal oxide nanoparticles (RAMON) effectively inhibits bacterial growth, providing a synergistic antimicrobial effect exceeding that of any of the agents alone. The combination of CAP and CeF3 was shown to be the most effective mutagen against plasmid DNA, and the combination of CAP and WO3 was the most effective against bacterial genomic DNA. The analysis of direct cell wall damage by atomic force microscopy showed the combination of CAP and CeF3 to be the most effective antimicrobial agent. The combination of CAP and redox-active metal oxide or metal fluoride nanoparticles has a strong synergistic antimicrobial effect on bacterial growth, resulting in plasmid and genomic DNA damage and cell wall damage. For the first time, a strong antimicrobial and DNA-damaging effect of CeF3 nanoparticles has been demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artem M. Ermakov
- Hospital of the Pushchino Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia (V.A.A.); (E.S.Z.)
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (Y.M.S.); (A.A.K.); (A.S.B.); (O.N.E.); (N.N.C.)
- ANO Engineering Physics Institute, 142210 Serpukhov, Russia
| | - Vera A. Afanasyeva
- Hospital of the Pushchino Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia (V.A.A.); (E.S.Z.)
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (Y.M.S.); (A.A.K.); (A.S.B.); (O.N.E.); (N.N.C.)
| | - Alexander V. Lazukin
- Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Thermonuclear Research (JSC “SSC RF TRINITY”), 108840 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Yuri M. Shlyapnikov
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (Y.M.S.); (A.A.K.); (A.S.B.); (O.N.E.); (N.N.C.)
| | - Elizaveta S. Zhdanova
- Hospital of the Pushchino Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia (V.A.A.); (E.S.Z.)
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (Y.M.S.); (A.A.K.); (A.S.B.); (O.N.E.); (N.N.C.)
| | - Anastasia A. Kolotova
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (Y.M.S.); (A.A.K.); (A.S.B.); (O.N.E.); (N.N.C.)
| | - Artem S. Blagodatski
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (Y.M.S.); (A.A.K.); (A.S.B.); (O.N.E.); (N.N.C.)
| | - Olga N. Ermakova
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (Y.M.S.); (A.A.K.); (A.S.B.); (O.N.E.); (N.N.C.)
| | - Nikita N. Chukavin
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (Y.M.S.); (A.A.K.); (A.S.B.); (O.N.E.); (N.N.C.)
- Scientific and Educational Center, State University of Education, 105005 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir K. Ivanov
- Kurnakov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Anton L. Popov
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (Y.M.S.); (A.A.K.); (A.S.B.); (O.N.E.); (N.N.C.)
- Scientific and Educational Center, State University of Education, 105005 Moscow, Russia
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Komiyama M. Ce-based solid-phase catalysts for phosphate hydrolysis as new tools for next-generation nanoarchitectonics. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATERIALS 2023; 24:2250705. [PMID: 37701758 PMCID: PMC10494760 DOI: 10.1080/14686996.2023.2250705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
This review comprehensively covers synthetic catalysts for the hydrolysis of biorelevant phosphates and pyrophosphates, which bridge between nanoarchitectonics and biology to construct their interdisciplinary hybrids. In the early 1980s, remarkable catalytic activity of Ce4+ ion for phosphate hydrolysis was found. More recently, this finding has been extended to Ce-based solid catalysts (CeO2 and Ce-based metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)), which are directly compatible with nanoarchitectonics. Monoesters and triesters of phosphates, as well as pyrophosphates, were effectively cleaved by these catalysts. With the use of either CeO2 nanoparticles or elegantly designed Ce-based MOF, highly stable phosphodiester linkages were also hydrolyzed. On the surfaces of all these solid catalysts, Ce4+ and Ce3+ coexist and cooperate for the catalysis. The Ce4+ activates phosphate substrates as a strong acid, whereas the Ce3+ provides metal-bound hydroxide as an eminent nucleophile. Applications of these Ce-based catalysts to practical purposes are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Komiyama
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology (RCAST), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Pütz E, Tutzschky I, Frerichs H, Tremel W. In situ generation of H 2O 2 using CaO 2 as peroxide storage depot for haloperoxidase mimicry with surface-tailored Bi-doped mesoporous CeO 2 nanozymes. NANOSCALE 2023; 15:5209-5218. [PMID: 36285584 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr02575b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Designing the size, morphology and interfacial charge of catalyst particles at the nanometer scale can enhance their performance. We demonstrate this with nanoceria which is a functional mimic of haloperoxidases, a group of enzymes that halogenates organic substrates in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. These reactions in aqueous solution require the presence of H2O2. We demonstrate in situ generation of H2O2 from a CaO2 reservoir in polyether sulfone (PES) and poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) polymer beads, which circumvents the external addition of H2O2 and expands the scope of applications for haloperoxidase reactions. The catalytic activity of nanoceria was enhanced significantly by Bi3+ substitution. Bi-doped mesoporous ceria nanoparticles with tunable surface properties were prepared by changing the reaction time. Increasing reaction time increases the surface area SBET of the mesoporous Bi0.2Ce0.8O1.9 nanoparticles and the Ce3+/Ce4+ ratio, which is associated with the ζ-potential. In this way, the catalytic activity of nanoceria could be tuned in a straightforward manner. H2O2 required for the reaction was released steadily over a long period of time from a CaO2 storage depot incorporated in polyether sulfone (PES) and poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) beads together with Bi0.2Ce0.8O1.9 particles, which may be used as precision fillers and templates for biological applications. The spheres are prepared as a dry powder with no surface functionalization or coatings. They are inert, chemically stable, and safe for handling. The feasibility of this approach was demonstrated using a haloperoxidase assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Pütz
- Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Department Chemie, Duesbergweg 10-14, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Ina Tutzschky
- Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Department Chemie, Duesbergweg 10-14, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Hajo Frerichs
- Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Department Chemie, Duesbergweg 10-14, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang Tremel
- Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Department Chemie, Duesbergweg 10-14, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
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Figueroa-Lopez KJ, Prieto C, Pardo-Figuerez M, Cabedo L, Lagaron JM. Development and Characterization of Electrospun Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Biopapers Containing Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles for Active Food Packaging Applications. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:823. [PMID: 36903702 PMCID: PMC10004799 DOI: 10.3390/nano13050823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Food quality is mainly affected by oxygen through oxidative reactions and the proliferation of microorganisms, generating changes in its taste, odor, and color. The work presented here describes the generation and further characterization of films with active oxygen scavenging properties made of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) loaded with cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO2NPs) obtained by electrospinning coupled to a subsequent annealing process, which could be used as coating or interlayer in a multilayer concept for food packaging applications. The aim of this work is to explore the capacities of these novel biopolymeric composites in terms of O2 scavenging capacity, as well as antioxidant, antimicrobial, barrier, thermal, and mechanical properties. To obtain such biopapers, different ratios of CeO2NPs were incorporated into a PHBV solution with hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) as a surfactant. The produced films were analyzed in terms of antioxidant, thermal, antioxidant, antimicrobial, optical, morphological and barrier properties, and oxygen scavenging activity. According to the results, the nanofiller showed some reduction of the thermal stability of the biopolyester but exhibited antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. In terms of passive barrier properties, the CeO2NPs decreased the permeability to water vapor but increased the limonene and oxygen permeability of the biopolymer matrix slightly. Nevertheless, the oxygen scavenging activity of the nanocomposites showed significant results and improved further by incorporating the surfactant CTAB. The PHBV nanocomposite biopapers developed in this study appear as very interesting constituents for the potential design of new active organic recyclable packaging materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J. Figueroa-Lopez
- Novel Materials and Nanotechnology Group, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), Calle Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Paterna, Spain
| | - Cristina Prieto
- Novel Materials and Nanotechnology Group, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), Calle Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Paterna, Spain
| | - Maria Pardo-Figuerez
- Novel Materials and Nanotechnology Group, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), Calle Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Paterna, Spain
| | - Luis Cabedo
- Polymers and Advanced Materials Group (PIMA), Universitat Jaume I (UJI), Avenida de Vicent Sos Baynat s/n, 12071 Castellón, Spain
| | - Jose M. Lagaron
- Novel Materials and Nanotechnology Group, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), Calle Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Paterna, Spain
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Pütz E, Smales GJ, Jegel O, Emmerling F, Tremel W. Tuning ceria catalysts in aqueous media at the nanoscale: how do surface charge and surface defects determine peroxidase- and haloperoxidase-like reactivity. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:13639-13650. [PMID: 36073499 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr03172h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Designing the shape and size of catalyst particles, and their interfacial charge, at the nanometer scale can radically change their performance. We demonstrate this with ceria nanoparticles. In aqueous media, nanoceria is a functional mimic of haloperoxidases, a group of enzymes that oxidize organic substrates, or of peroxidases that can degrade reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as H2O2 by oxidizing an organic substrate. We show that the chemical activity of CeO2-x nanoparticles in haloperoxidase- and peroxidase-like reactions scales with their active surface area, their surface charge, given by the ζ-potential, and their surface defects (via the Ce3+/Ce4+ ratio). Haloperoxidase-like reactions are controlled through the ζ-potential as they involve the adsorption of charged halide anions to the CeO2 surface, whereas peroxidase-like reactions without charged substrates are controlled through the specific surface area SBET. Mesoporous CeO2-x particles, with large surface areas, were prepared via template-free hydrothermal reactions and characterized by small-angle X-ray scattering. Surface area, ζ-potential and the Ce3+/Ce4+ ratio are controlled in a simple and predictable manner by the synthesis time of the hydrothermal reaction as demonstrated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, sorption and ζ-potential measurements. The surface area increased with synthesis time, whilst the Ce3+/Ce4+ ratio scales inversely with decreasing ζ-potential. In this way the catalytic activity of mesoporous CeO2-x particles could be tailored selectively for haloperoxidase- and peroxidase-like reactions. The ease of tuning the surface properties of mesoporous CeO2x particles by varying the synthesis time makes the synthesis a powerful general tool for the preparation of nanocatalysts according to individual needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Pütz
- Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Department Chemie, Duesbergweg 10-14, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Glen J Smales
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), Unter den Eichen 87, Berlin 12205, Germany
| | - Olga Jegel
- Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Department Chemie, Duesbergweg 10-14, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Franziska Emmerling
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), Unter den Eichen 87, Berlin 12205, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Tremel
- Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Department Chemie, Duesbergweg 10-14, D-55128 Mainz, Germany.
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