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Kozyreva A, Lorenz-Spreen P, Herzog SM, Ecker UKH, Lewandowsky S, Hertwig R, Ali A, Bak-Coleman J, Barzilai S, Basol M, Berinsky AJ, Betsch C, Cook J, Fazio LK, Geers M, Guess AM, Huang H, Larreguy H, Maertens R, Panizza F, Pennycook G, Rand DG, Rathje S, Reifler J, Schmid P, Smith M, Swire-Thompson B, Szewach P, van der Linden S, Wineburg S. Toolbox of individual-level interventions against online misinformation. Nat Hum Behav 2024; 8:1044-1052. [PMID: 38740990 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-024-01881-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
The spread of misinformation through media and social networks threatens many aspects of society, including public health and the state of democracies. One approach to mitigating the effect of misinformation focuses on individual-level interventions, equipping policymakers and the public with essential tools to curb the spread and influence of falsehoods. Here we introduce a toolbox of individual-level interventions for reducing harm from online misinformation. Comprising an up-to-date account of interventions featured in 81 scientific papers from across the globe, the toolbox provides both a conceptual overview of nine main types of interventions, including their target, scope and examples, and a summary of the empirical evidence supporting the interventions, including the methods and experimental paradigms used to test them. The nine types of interventions covered are accuracy prompts, debunking and rebuttals, friction, inoculation, lateral reading and verification strategies, media-literacy tips, social norms, source-credibility labels, and warning and fact-checking labels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Kozyreva
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Philipp Lorenz-Spreen
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan M Herzog
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ullrich K H Ecker
- School of Psychological Science & Public Policy Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Stephan Lewandowsky
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Ralph Hertwig
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ayesha Ali
- Department of Economics, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Joe Bak-Coleman
- Craig Newmark Center, School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sarit Barzilai
- Department of Learning and Instructional Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Melisa Basol
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Adam J Berinsky
- Department of Political Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Cornelia Betsch
- Institute for Planetary Health Behaviour, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - John Cook
- Melbourne Centre for Behaviour Change, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Lisa K Fazio
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Michael Geers
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andrew M Guess
- Department of Politics and School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Haifeng Huang
- Department of Political Science, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Horacio Larreguy
- Departments of Economics and Political Science, Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rakoen Maertens
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Gordon Pennycook
- Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - David G Rand
- Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Steve Rathje
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jason Reifler
- Department of Politics, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Philipp Schmid
- Institute for Planetary Health Behaviour, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Mark Smith
- Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | - Paula Szewach
- Department of Politics, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
- Barcelona Supercomputing Center, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Sam Wineburg
- Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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Van Bavel JJ, Rathje S, Vlasceanu M, Pretus C. Updating the identity-based model of belief: From false belief to the spread of misinformation. Curr Opin Psychol 2024; 56:101787. [PMID: 38295623 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
The spread of misinformation threatens democratic societies, hampering informed decision-making. Partisan identity biases perceptions of reality, promoting false beliefs. The Identity-based Model of Political Belief explains how social identity shapes information processing and contributes to misinformation. According to this model, social identity goals can override accuracy goals, leading to belief alignment with party members rather than facts. We propose an extended version of this model that incorporates the role of informational context in misinformation belief and sharing. Partisanship involves cognitive and motivational aspects that shape party members' beliefs and actions. This includes whether they seek further evidence, where they seek that evidence, and which sources they trust. Understanding the interplay between social identity and accuracy is crucial in addressing misinformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay J Van Bavel
- Department of Psychology & Center for Neural Science, New York University, USA; Norwegian School of Economics in Bergen, Norway.
| | - Steve Rathje
- Department of Psychology, New York University, USA
| | | | - Clara Pretus
- Department of Psychobiology and Methodology of Health Sciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
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3
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Geers M, Swire-Thompson B, Lorenz-Spreen P, Herzog SM, Kozyreva A, Hertwig R. The Online Misinformation Engagement Framework. Curr Opin Psychol 2024; 55:101739. [PMID: 38091666 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
Research on online misinformation has evolved rapidly, but organizing its results and identifying open research questions is difficult without a systematic approach. We present the Online Misinformation Engagement Framework, which classifies people's engagement with online misinformation into four stages: selecting information sources, choosing what information to consume or ignore, evaluating the accuracy of the information and/or the credibility of the source, and judging whether and how to react to the information (e.g., liking or sharing). We outline entry points for interventions at each stage and pinpoint the two early stages-source and information selection-as relatively neglected processes that should be addressed to further improve people's ability to contend with misinformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Geers
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany; Department of Psychology, Humboldt University of Berlin, Rudower Ch. 18, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Briony Swire-Thompson
- Network Science Institute, Northeastern University, 177 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Institute for Quantitative Social Science, Harvard University, 1737 Cambridge St., Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Philipp Lorenz-Spreen
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan M Herzog
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anastasia Kozyreva
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Ralph Hertwig
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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Blair RA, Gottlieb J, Nyhan B, Paler L, Argote P, Stainfield CJ. Interventions to counter misinformation: Lessons from the Global North and applications to the Global South. Curr Opin Psychol 2024; 55:101732. [PMID: 38070207 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
We synthesize evidence from 176 experimental estimates of 11 interventions intended to combat misinformation in the Global North and Global South, which we classify as informational, educational, sociopsychological, or institutional. Among these, we find the most consistent positive evidence for two informational interventions in both Global North and Global South contexts: inoculation/prebunking and debunking. In a complementary survey of 138 misinformation scholars and practitioners, we find that experts tend to be most optimistic about interventions that have been least widely studied or that have been shown to be mostly ineffective. We provide a searchable database of misinformation randomized controlled trials and suggest avenues for future research to close the gap between expert opinion and academic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Blair
- Department of Political Science and Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University, United States
| | - Jessica Gottlieb
- Hobby School of Public Affairs, University of Houston, United States
| | - Brendan Nyhan
- Department of Government, Dartmouth College, United States.
| | - Laura Paler
- Department of Government, School of Public Affairs, American University, United States
| | - Pablo Argote
- Department of Political Science and International Relations, University of Southern California, United States
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Kozyreva A, Wineburg S, Lewandowsky S, Hertwig R. Critical Ignoring as a Core Competence for Digital Citizens. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2023; 32:81-88. [PMID: 37994317 PMCID: PMC7615324 DOI: 10.1177/09637214221121570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Low-quality and misleading information online can hijack people's attention, often by evoking curiosity, outrage, or anger. Resisting certain types of information and actors online requires people to adopt new mental habits that help them avoid being tempted by attention-grabbing and potentially harmful content. We argue that digital information literacy must include the competence of critical ignoring-choosing what to ignore and where to invest one's limited attentional capacities. We review three types of cognitive strategies for implementing critical ignoring: self-nudging, in which one ignores temptations by removing them from one's digital environments; lateral reading, in which one vets information by leaving the source and verifying its credibility elsewhere online; and the do-not-feed-the-trolls heuristic, which advises one to not reward malicious actors with attention. We argue that these strategies implementing critical ignoring should be part of school curricula on digital information literacy. Teaching the competence of critical ignoring requires a paradigm shift in educators' thinking, from a sole focus on the power and promise of paying close attention to an additional emphasis on the power of ignoring. Encouraging students and other online users to embrace critical ignoring can empower them to shield themselves from the excesses, traps, and information disorders of today's attention economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Kozyreva
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sam Wineburg
- Graduate School of Education, Stanford University
| | - Stephan Lewandowsky
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam
| | - Ralph Hertwig
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
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