In situ quantitative single-molecule study of dynamic catalytic processes in nanoconfinement

Electric-Field-Driven Redistribution of Carriers on Catalyst Particles to Improve Photocatalytic Performance

The photocatalytic performance is primarily determined by carrier separation efficiency. Applying electric fields to enhance carrier separation efficiency and thereby boost catalytic performance has emerged as a promising approach. However, the carrier behavior on catalyst particles under electric fields was still hardly acknowledged. Herein, using single-molecule fluorescence microscopy with high spatiotemporal resolution, the redistribution behavior of carriers on catalyst particles under an electric field was visualized for the first time, which was closely related to the direction and intensity of the electric field. Single-molecule kinetics of the photocatalytic redox reactions induced by carriers have been further obtained, and the results showed that the external electric field had an obvious regulating role in the conversion process and desorption process in this work, which was attributed to the dynamic redistribution of carriers. The improvement of photocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) activity further supports the impact of the external electric field on photocatalysis. This work offers new insight into the microscopic regulation mechanism of photocatalytic activity by electric fields and provides new methods for studying the structure-activity relationship in photocatalytic processes.

Quantitative Advantages of Corrosion Sensing Using Fluorescence, Microscopy, and Single-Molecule Detection

The corrosion of metals and alloys is a fundamental issue in modern society. Understanding the mechanisms that cause and prevent corrosion is integral to saving millions of dollars each year and to ensure the safe use of infrastructure subject to the hazardous degrading effects of corrosion. Despite this, corrosion detection techniques have lacked precise, quantitative information, with industries taking a top-down, macroscale approach to analyzing corrosion with tests that span months to years and yield qualitative information. Fluorescence, a well-established optical method, can fill the niche of early-stage, quantitative corrosion detection and can be employed for both bulk and localized testing over time. The latter, fluorescence microscopy, can be pushed to greater levels of detail with single-molecule microscopy, achieving nanometer spatial and subsecond temporal resolutions of corrosion that allow for the extraction of dynamic information and kinetics. This review will present how fluorescence microscopy can provide researchers with a molecular view into the chemical mechanisms of corrosion at interfaces and allow for faster, quantitative studies of how to detect and prevent corrosion.

Revealing the heterogeneous catalytic kinetics of PtRu nanocatalysts at the single particle level

Comparison of the structural features and catalytic performance of bimetallic nanocatalysts will help to develop a unified understanding of structure-reaction relationships. The single-molecule fluorescence technique was utilized to reveal the differences in catalytic kinetics among PtRu bimetallic nanocatalysts and Pt and Ru monometallic nanocatalysts at the single particle level. The results show that bimetallic nanocatalysts have higher apparent rate constants and desorption rate constants relative to monometallic nanocatalysts, which leads to their higher catalytic activity. At the single particle level, bimetallic nanocatalysts have a wider distribution of apparent rate constants, suggesting that bimetallic nanocatalysts have higher activity heterogeneity relative to monometallic nanocatalysts. By investigating the relationship between the reaction rate and the rate of dynamic activity fluctuations, it was found that spontaneous surface restructuring and reaction-induced surface restructuring of nanoparticles occurred. The surface of bimetallic nanoparticles restructured faster, which made the bimetallic nanocatalysts more active. These findings provide new insights into the design of highly active bimetallic nanocatalysts.

Nanoscale chemical characterization of materials and interfaces by tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

Materials and their interfaces are the core for the development of a large variety of fields, including catalysis, energy storage and conversion. In this case, tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS), which combines scanning probe microscopy with plasmon-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, is a powerful technique that can simultaneously obtain the morphological information and chemical fingerprint of target samples at nanometer spatial resolution. It is an ideal tool for the nanoscale chemical characterization of materials and interfaces, correlating their structures with chemical performances. In this review, we begin with a brief introduction to the nanoscale characterization of materials and interfaces, followed by a detailed discussion on the recent theoretical understanding and technical improvements of TERS, including the origin of enhancement, TERS instruments, TERS tips and the application of algorithms in TERS. Subsequently, we list the key experimental issues that need to be addressed to conduct successful TERS measurements. Next, we focus on the recent progress of TERS in the study of various materials, especially the novel low-dimensional materials, and the progresses of TERS in studying different interfaces, including both solid-gas and solid-liquid interfaces. Finally, we provide an outlook on the future developments of TERS in the study of materials and interfaces.

Hydration-Accelerated Crown Ether Diffusion within Single Three-Dimensional Covalent Organic Frameworks

In this contribution, we report on the visualization of 12-crown-4 molecular diffusion behavior within a single-crystal particle of covalent organic framework-300 (COF-300) using operando dark-field optical microscopy. The diffusion area and front of 12-crown-4 are directly tracked in real time, offering key information for quantifying the diffusion coefficient (D). The direction of the diffusion and variation of D reveal intraparticle and interparticle heterogeneity. Notably, an unexpected hydration-accelerated diffusion process of 12-crown-4 within the pore channels of COF-300 is captured, in which a relatively low concentration of 12-crown-4 aqueous solution induces a fast diffusion, whereas the pure 12-crown-4 liquid cannot access the framework. The observed acceleration diffusion is demonstrated to arise from the hydrogen-bonding interactions between surface water molecules of hydrated 12-crown-4 and the imine groups of COF-300. These findings expand the mechanistic understanding of the noncovalent interactions between COFs and crown ethers (CEs), which will help to design and prepare CE-based COFs with improved performance.

Technologies for investigating single-molecule chemical reactions

Single molecules, the smallest independently stable units in the material world, serve as the fundamental building blocks of matter. Among different branches of single-molecule sciences, single-molecule chemical reactions, by revealing the behavior and properties of individual molecules at the molecular scale, are particularly attractive because they can advance the understanding of chemical reaction mechanisms and help to address key scientific problems in broad fields such as physics, chemistry, biology and materials science. This review provides a timely, comprehensive overview of single-molecule chemical reactions based on various technical platforms such as scanning probe microscopy, single-molecule junction, single-molecule nanostructure, single-molecule fluorescence detection and crossed molecular beam. We present multidimensional analyses of single-molecule chemical reactions, offering new perspectives for research in different areas, such as photocatalysis/electrocatalysis, organic reactions, surface reactions and biological reactions. Finally, we discuss the opportunities and challenges in this thriving field of single-molecule chemical reactions.

Revealing operando surface defect-dependent electrocatalytic performance of Pt at the subparticle level

Understanding the operando defect-tuning performance of catalysts is critical to establish an accurate structure-activity relationship of a catalyst. Here, with the tool of single-molecule super-resolution fluorescence microscopy, by imaging intermediate CO formation/oxidation during the methanol oxidation reaction process on individual defective Pt nanotubes, we reveal that the fresh Pt ends with more defects are more active and anti-CO poisoning than fresh center areas with less defects, while such difference could be reversed after catalysis-induced step-by-step creation of more defects on the Pt surface. Further experimental results reveal an operando volcano relationship between the catalytic performance (activity and anti-CO ability) and the fine-tuned defect density. Systematic DFT calculations indicate that such an operando volcano relationship could be attributed to the defect-dependent transition state free energy and the accelerated surface reconstructing of defects or Pt-atom moving driven by the adsorption of the CO intermediate. These insights deepen our understanding to the operando defect-driven catalysis at single-molecule and subparticle level, which is able to help the design of highly efficient defect-based catalysts.

Efficient Homolytic Cleavage of H2O2 on Hydroxyl-Enriched Spinel CuFe2O4 with Dual Lewis Acid Sites

Traditional H2O2 cleavage mediated by macroscopic electron transfer (MET) not only has low utilization of H2O2, but also sacrifices the stability of catalysts. We present a non-redox hydroxyl-enriched spinel (CuFe2O4) catalyst with dual Lewis acid sites to realize the homolytic cleavage of H2O2. The results of systematic experiments, in situ characterizations, and theoretical calculations confirm that tetrahedral Cu sites with optimal Lewis acidity and strong electron delocalization can synergistically elongate the O-O bonds (1.47 Å → 1.87 Å) in collaboration with adjacent bridging hydroxyl (another Lewis acid site). As a result, the free energy of H2O2 homolytic cleavage is decreased (1.28 eV → 0.98 eV). H2O2 can be efficiently split into ⋅OH induced by hydroxyl-enriched CuFe2O4 without MET, which greatly improves the catalyst stability and the H2O2 utilization (65.2 %, nearly 2 times than traditional catalysts). The system assembled with hydroxyl-enriched CuFe2O4 and H2O2 affords exceptional performance for organic pollutant elimination. The scale-up experiment using a continuous flow reactor realizes long-term stability (up to 600 mL), confirming the tremendous potential of hydroxyl-enriched CuFe2O4 for practical applications.

Nanoscale Luminescence Imaging/Detection of Single Particles: State-of-the-Art and Future Prospects

Single-particle-level measurements, during the reaction, avoid averaging effects that are inherent limitations of conventional ensemble strategies. It allows revealing structure-activity relationships beyond averaged properties by considering crucial particle-selective descriptors including structure/morphology dynamics, intrinsic heterogeneity, and dynamic fluctuations in reactivity (kinetics, mechanisms). In recent years, numerous luminescence (optical) techniques such as chemiluminescence (CL), electrochemiluminescence (ECL), and fluorescence (FL) microscopies have been emerging as dominant tools to achieve such measurements, owing to their diversified spectroscopy principles, noninvasive nature, higher sensitivity, and sufficient spatiotemporal resolution. Correspondingly, state-of-the-art methodologies and tools are being used for probing (real-time, operando, in situ) diverse applications of single particles in sensing, medicine, and catalysis. Herein, we provide a concise and comprehensive perspective on luminescence-based detection and imaging of single particles by putting special emphasis on their basic principles, mechanistic pathways, advances, challenges, and key applications. This Perspective focuses on the development of emission intensities and imaging based individual particle detection. Moreover, several key examples in the areas of sensing, motion, catalysis, energy, materials, and emerging trends in related areas are documented. We finally conclude with the opportunities and remaining challenges to stimulate further developments in this field.

In Situ Multicolor Imaging of Photocatalytic Degradation Process of Permanganate on Single Bismuth-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks

Bismuth-based metal-organic frameworks (Bi-MOFs) have emerged as important photocatalysts for pollutant degradation applications. Understanding the photocatalytic degradation mechanism is key to achieving technological advantage. Herein, we apply dark-field optical microscopy (DFM) to realize in situ multicolor imaging of the photocatalytic degradation process of permanganate (MnO4-) on single CAU-17 Bi-MOFs. Three reaction kinetic processes such as surface adsorption, photocatalytic reduction, and disproportionation are revealed by combining the time-lapsed DFM images with optical absorption spectra, indicating that the photocatalytic reduction of purple MnO4- first produces beige red MnO42- through a one-electron pathway, and then MnO42- disproportionates into yellow MnO2 on CAU-17. Meanwhile, we observe that the deposition of MnO2 cocatalysts enhances the surface adsorption reaction and the photocatalytic reduction of MnO4- to MnO42-. Unexpectedly, it is found that isopropanol as a typical hole scavenger can stabilize MnO42-, avoiding disproportionation and causing the alteration of the photocatalytic reaction pathway from a one-electron avenue to a three-electron (1 + 2) process for producing MnO2 on CAU-17. This research opens up the possibility of comprehensively tracking and understanding the photocatalytic degradation reaction at the single MOF particle level.

One-Shot Dual-Detection-Based Single-Molecule Super-Resolution Imaging Method for Real-Time Observation of Spatiotemporal Catalytic Activity Variations on the Plasmonic Gold Nanoparticle Surface

Understanding the relationship between the surface properties of a single plasmonic nanoparticle and its catalytic performance is critical for developing highly efficient nanocatalysts. In this study, a one-shot dual-detection-based single-molecule super-resolution imaging method in the evanescent field was developed to observe real-time spatiotemporal catalytic activity on a single plasmonic gold nanoparticle (AuNP) surface. The scattering intensity of AuNPs and the fluorescence of resorufin molecules produced on the AuNP surface were obtained simultaneously to investigate the relationship between nanoparticles and catalytic reactions at a single-molecule level. Chemisorbed adsorbates (i.e., catalytic product and resorufin) changed the electron density of individual AuNPs throughout the catalytic cycle, resulting in the fluctuation of the scattering intensity of individual AuNPs, which was attributed to the electron transfer between reactant resazurin molecules and AuNPs. The increase in the electron density of individual AuNPs affected the catalytic reaction rate. Furthermore, sequential mapping of individual catalytic events at the subdiffraction limit resolution was completed for real-time surface dynamics and spatiotemporal activity variations on the single AuNP surface. The developed method can aid in understanding surface-property-dependent catalytic kinetics and facilitate the development of nanoparticle-based heterogeneous catalysts at subdiffraction limit resolution.

Reaction-Initiated Single-Molecule Tracking of Mass Transfer in Core-Shell Mesoporous Silica Particles

Understanding the host-guest interactions in porous materials is of great importance in the field of separation science. Probing it at the single-molecule level uncovers the inter- and intraparticle inhomogeneity and establishes structure-property relationships for guiding the design of porous materials for better separation performance. In this work, we investigated the dynamics of host-guest interactions in core-shell mesoporous silica particles under in situ conditions by using a fluorogenic reaction-initiated single-molecule tracking (riSMT) approach. Taking advantage of the low fluorescence background, three-dimensional (3D) tracking of the dynamics of the molecules inside the mesoporous silica pore was achieved with high spatial precision. Compared to the commonly used two-dimensional (2D) tracking method, the 3D tracking results show that the diffusion coefficients of the molecules are three times larger on average. Using riSMT, we quantitatively analyzed the mass transfer of probe molecules in the mesoporous silica pore, including the fraction of adsorption versus diffusion, diffusion coefficients, and residence time. Large interparticle inhomogeneity was revealed and is expected to contribute to the peak broadening for separation application at the ensemble level. We further investigated the impact of electrostatic interaction on the mass transfer of molecules in the mesoporous silica pore and discovered that the primary effect is on the fraction rather than their diffusion rates of resorufin molecules undergoing diffusion.

Molecular Accessibility and Diffusion of Resorufin in Zeolite Crystals

We have used confocal laser scanning microscopy on the small, fluorescent resorufin dye molecule to visualize molecular accessibility and diffusion in the hierarchical, anisotropic pore structure of large (~10 μm-sized) zeolite-β crystals. The resorufin dye is widely used in life and materials science, but only in its deprotonated form because the protonated molecule is barely fluorescent in aqueous solution. In this work, we show that protonated resorufin is in fact strongly fluorescent when confined within zeolite micropores, thus enabling fluorescence microimaging experiments. We find that J-aggregation guest-guest interactions lead to a decrease in the measured fluorescence intensity that can be prevented by using non-fluorescent spacer molecules. We characterized the pore space by introducing resorufin from the outside solution and following its diffusion into zeolite-β crystals. The eventual homogeneous distribution of resorufin molecules throughout the zeolite indicates a fully accessible pore network. This enables the quantification of the diffusion coefficient in the straight pores of zeolite-β without the need for complex analysis, and we found a value of 3×10-15  m2  s-1 . Furthermore, we saw that diffusion through the straight pores of zeolite-β is impeded when crossing the boundaries between zeolite subunits.

Tracking Ion Transport in Nanochannels via Transient Single-Particle Imaging

The transport behavior of ions in the nanopores has an important impact on the performance of the electrochemical devices. Although the classical Transmission-Line (TL) model has long been used to describe ion transport in pores, the boundary conditions for the applicability of the TL model remain controversial. Here, we investigated the transport kinetics of different ions, within nanochannels of different lengths, by using transient single-particle imaging with temporal resolution up to microseconds. We found that the ion transport kinetics within short nanochannels may deviate significantly from the TL model. The reason is that the ion transport under nanoconfinement is composed of multi basic stages, and the kinetics differ much under different stage domination. With the shortening of nanochannels, the electrical double layer (EDL) formation would become the "rate-determining step" and dominate the apparent ion kinetics. Our results imply that using the TL model directly and treating the in-pore mobility as an unchanged parameter to estimate the ion transport kinetics in short nanopores/nanochannels may lead to orders of magnitude bias. These findings may advance the understanding of the nanoconfined ion transport and promote the related applications.

Getting the Most Out of Fluorogenic Probes: Challenges and Opportunities in Using Single-Molecule Fluorescence to Image Electro- and Photocatalysis

Single-molecule fluorescence microscopy enables the direct observation of individual reaction events at the surface of a catalyst. It has become a powerful tool to image in real time both intra- and interparticle heterogeneity among different nanoscale catalyst particles. Single-molecule fluorescence microscopy of heterogeneous catalysts relies on the detection of chemically activated fluorogenic probes that are converted from a nonfluorescent state into a highly fluorescent state through a reaction mediated at the catalyst surface. This review article describes challenges and opportunities in using such fluorogenic probes as proxies to develop structure-activity relationships in nanoscale electrocatalysts and photocatalysts. We compare single-molecule fluorescence microscopy to other microscopies for imaging catalysis in situ to highlight the distinct advantages and limitations of this technique. We describe correlative imaging between super-resolution activity maps obtained from multiple fluorogenic probes to understand the chemical origins behind spatial variations in activity that are frequently observed for nanoscale catalysts. Fluorogenic probes, originally developed for biological imaging, are introduced that can detect products such as carbon monoxide, nitrite, and ammonia, which are generated by electro- and photocatalysts for fuel production and environmental remediation. We conclude by describing how single-molecule imaging can provide mechanistic insights for a broader scope of catalytic systems, such as single-atom catalysts.

The role of halogens in Au-S bond cleavage for energy-differentiated catalysis at the single-bond limit

The transformation from one compound to another involves the breaking and formation of chemical bonds at the single-bond level, especially during catalytic reactions that are of great significance in broad fields such as energy conversion, environmental science, life science and chemical synthesis. The study of the reaction process at the single-bond limit is the key to understanding the catalytic reaction mechanism and further rationally designing catalysts. Here, we develop a method to monitor the catalytic process from the perspective of the single-bond energy using high-resolution scanning tunneling microscopy single-molecule junctions. Experimental and theoretical studies consistently reveal that the attack of a halogen atom on an Au atom can reduce the breaking energy of Au-S bonds, thereby accelerating the bond cleavage reaction and shortening the plateau length during the single-molecule junction breaking. Furthermore, the distinction in catalytic activity between different halogen atoms can be compared as well. This study establishes the intrinsic relationship among the reaction activation energy, the chemical bond breaking energy and the single-molecule junction breaking process, strengthening our mastery of catalytic reactions towards precise chemistry.

Real-Time Monitoring of a Single Molecule in Sub-nanometer Space by Dynamic Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

In biology and chemistry, the ultimate goal is to monitor single molecules without labels. However, long-term monitoring of label-free molecules remains a challenge. Here, on the basis of the photothermal effect of gold nanorods (GNRs), we developed a platform for monitoring of a single molecule employing surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). Laser re-irradiation forms 1.0 nm gaps between GNRs, allowing us to observe single crystal violet (CV) molecules blinking for up to 4 min with dynamic surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (D-SERS). Bianalyte experiments confirm single-molecule features at CV concentrations of 10-14 M. Combining density functional theory (DFT) calculations with a free CV molecule observed in millisecond D-SERS, we propose that CV molecules can be confined to sub-nanometer space and the orientation of an individual CV moving in the range of 50-90° can be dynamically captured by D-SERS. This will provide a novel idea for effective exploration of the temporal and spatial dynamic processes of different reactions.

Real-Time Single-Particle Imaging of a Dynamic Host-Guest Interaction-Initiated Nanoconfinement Effect on Iodine Uptake

Fundamentally understanding the nanoconfinement effect within porous crystals is crucial for improving and extending their applications. Here, we report the real-time single-particle imaging of dynamic adaptive host-guest interaction between acetic acid (HAc) and covalent organic framework-300 (COF-300) to generate HAc-confined COF-300 (HAc@COF-300) under in situ reaction conditions, which initiates subsequent iodine uptake in an aqueous solution using a dark-field optical microscope (DFM). Operando DFM imaging reveals the adaptive deformation of COF-300 particles during the host-guest interaction process, which is attributed to the Lewis acid-base interaction-induced crystal contraction. Moreover, quantitative analysis shows that the HAc@COF-300 exhibits 65,000-fold higher binding affinity toward iodine than free HAc because of the increase in local concentration and close proximity under the nanoconfinement environment. With the guidance of the nanoconfinement effect, an adsorption reaction system consisting of HAc and COF-300 for capturing I2 is rationally designed and validated by macroscopic ensemble measurements, resulting in significantly improved adsorption performance by 7- to 8-fold. These findings highlight the nanoconfinement effects in adsorption/separation reactions.

Strategies for Overcoming the Single-Molecule Concentration Barrier

Fluorescence-based single-molecule approaches have helped revolutionize our understanding of chemical and biological mechanisms. Unfortunately, these methods are only suitable at low concentrations of fluorescent molecules so that single fluorescent species of interest can be successfully resolved beyond background signal. The application of these techniques has therefore been limited to high-affinity interactions despite most biological and chemical processes occurring at much higher reactant concentrations. Fortunately, recent methodological advances have demonstrated that this concentration barrier can indeed be broken, with techniques reaching concentrations as high as 1 mM. The goal of this Review is to discuss the challenges in performing single-molecule fluorescence techniques at high-concentration, offer applications in both biology and chemistry, and highlight the major milestones that shatter the concentration barrier. We also hope to inspire the widespread use of these techniques so we can begin exploring the new physical phenomena lying beyond this barrier.

Dynamic imaging of interfacial electrochemistry on single Ag nanowires by azimuth-modulated plasmonic scattering interferometry

Direct visualization of surface chemical dynamics in solution is essential for understanding the mechanisms involved in nanocatalysis and electrochemistry; however, it is challenging to achieve high spatial and temporal resolution. Here, we present an azimuth-modulated plasmonic imaging technique capable of imaging dynamic interfacial changes. The method avoids strong interference from reflected light and consequently eliminates the parabolic-like interferometric patterns in the images, allowing for a 67-fold increase in the spatial resolution of plasmonic imaging. We demonstrate that this optical imaging approach enables comprehensive analyses of surface chemical dynamics and identification of previously unknown surface reaction heterogeneity by investigating electrochemical redox reactions over single silver nanowires as an example. This work provides a general strategy for high-resolution plasmonic imaging of surface electrochemical dynamics and other interfacial chemical reactions, complementing existing surface characterization methods.

Quantitative single-molecule study reveals site-specific photo-oxidation activities and kinetics on 2D g-C3N4

We report the utilization of single-molecule fluorescence microscopy to in situ quantify the photo-oxidation reaction kinetics on g-C₃N₄. The wrinkle structure shows the highest reactivity and direct dissociation rate. The basal plane exhibits the highest affinity to reactants and products and indirect dissociation rate constant, followed by edges and wrinkles.

In situ quantitative single-molecule study of site-specific photocatalytic activity and dynamics on ultrathin g-C3N4 nanosheets

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) has attracted extensive research attention in recent years due to its unique layered structure, facile synthetic route, visible-light-responsive nature, and excellent photocatalytic performance. However, an insightful investigation of site-specific catalytic activities and kinetics on g-C₃N₄ is still warranted. Here, we fabricated ultrathin g-C₃N₄ nanosheets through thermal exfoliation. The optimized sample exhibits a high specific surface area of 307.35 m² g^-1 and a remarkable H₂ generation activity of 2008 μmol h^-1 g^-1 with an apparent quantum efficiency of 4.62% at λ = 420 nm. Single-molecule fluorescence microscopy was applied for the first time to spatially resolve the reaction heterogeneities with nanometer precision (∼10 nm). The catalytic kinetics (i.e., reactant adsorption, conversion, and product dissociation) and temporal activity fluctuations were in situ quantified at individual structural features (i.e., wrinkles, edges, and basal planes) of g-C₃N₄. It was found that the wrinkle and edge exhibited superior photocatalytic activity due to the intrinsic band modulation, which are 20 times and 14.8 times that of the basal plane, respectively. Moreover, due to the steric effect, the basal plane showed the highest adsorption constant and the lowest direct dissociation constant. Density functional theory (DFT) simulations unveiled the adsorption energies of reactant and product molecules on each structure of g-C₃N₄, which support our experimental results. Such investigation would shed more light on the fundamental understanding of site-specific catalytic dynamics on g-C₃N₄, which benefits the rational design of 2D layered materials for efficient solar-to-chemical energy conversion.

Direct Visualization of Nanoconfinement Effect on Nanoreactor via Electrochemiluminescence Microscopy

Nanoconfinement in mesoporous nanoarchitectures could dramatically change molecular transport and reaction kinetics during electrochemical process. A molecular-level understanding of nanoconfinement and mass transport is critical for the applications, but a proper route to study it is lacking. Herein, we develop a single nanoreactor electrochemiluminescence (SNECL) microscopy based on Ru(bpy)₃ ²⁺ -loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticle to directly visualize in situ nanoconfinement-enhanced electrochemical reactions at the single molecule level. Meanwhile, mass transport capability of single nanoreactor, reflected as long decay time and recovery ability, is monitored and simulated with a high spatial resolution. The nanoconfinement effects in our system also enable imaging single proteins on cellular membrane. Our SNECL approach may pave the way to decipher the nanoconfinement effects during electrochemical process, and build bridges between mesoporous nanoarchitectures and potential electrochemical applications.

Kinetics Driven by Hollow Nanoreactors: An Opportunity for Controllable Catalysis

As a novel class of catalytic materials, hollow nanoreactors offer new opportunities for improving catalytic performance owing to their higher controllability on molecular kinetic behavior. Nevertheless, to achieve controllable catalysis with specific purposes, the catalytic mechanism occurring inside hollow nanoreactors remains to be further understood. In this context, this Review presents a focused discussion about the basic concept of hollow nanoreactors, the underlying theory for hollow nanoreactor-driven kinetics, and the intrinsic correlation between key structural parameters of hollow nanoreactors and molecular kinetic behaviors. We aim to provide in-depth insights into understanding kinetics occurred within typical hollow nanoreactors. The perspectives proposed in this paper may contribute to the development of the fundamental theoretical framework of hollow nanoreactor-driven catalysis.

Single-Molecule Imaging of Reactive Oxygen Species on a Semiconductor Nano-Heterostructure for Understanding Photocatalytic Heterogeneity in Aqueous

We constructed a single-molecule fluorescence imaging technique to monitor the spatiotemporal distribution of the hydroxyl radical (•OH) on TiO₂-attached multiwalled carbon nanotubes (TiO₂-MWCNTs) in aqueous. We found the heterogeneous distribution of •OH is closely related to the composition and heterostructure of the catalysts. The dynamic •OH production rate was evaluated by counting the single-molecule fluorescent bursts. We further confirmed the production of •OH on TiO₂-MWCNTs mainly occurred via electron reduction during the aqueous photocatalytic process. Our study reveals the mechanism of reactive oxygen species involved photocatalytic reaction and guides the design of advanced semiconductor photocatalysts.

Achieving enhanced peroxidase-like activity in multimetallic nanorattles

Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) have been extensively used as artificial enzymes, but their performance is still limited. We address this challenge by focusing on multimetallic nanorattles comprising an Au core inside a bimetallic AgAu shell, separated by a void (Au@AgAu NRs). They were prepared by a galvanic replacement approach and contained an ultrathin and porous shell comprising an AgAu alloy. By investigating the peroxide-like activity using TMB oxidation as a model transformation, we have found an increase of 152 fold in activities for the NRs relative to conventional Au NPs. Based on the kinetics results, the NRs also showed the lowest K_m, indicating better interaction with the substrate and faster product formation. We also observed a linear relationship between the concentration of the product and oxTMB as a function of H₂O₂ concentration, which could be further applied for H₂O₂ sensing applications (colorimetric detection). These data suggest that the NRs enable the combined effect of an increased surface area relative to solid counterparts, the possibility of exposing highly active surface sites, and the exploitation of nanoconfinement effects due to the void regions between the core and shell components. These results provide important insights into the optimization of peroxidase-like performances beyond what can be achieved in conventional NPs and may inspire the development of better-performing artificial enzymes.

Making and breaking of chemical bonds in single nanoconfined molecules

Nanoconfinement of catalytically active molecules is a powerful strategy to control their chemical activity; however, the atomic-scale mechanisms are challenging to identify. In the present study, the site-specific reactivity of a model rhenium catalyst is studied on the subnanometer scale for complexes confined within quasi-one-dimensional molecular chains on the Ag(001) surface by scanning tunneling microscopy. Injection of tunneling electrons causes ligand dissociation in single molecules. Unexpectedly, while half of the complexes show only the dissociation, the confined molecules show also the reverse reaction. On the basis of density functional theory calculations, this drastic difference can be attributed to the limited space in confinement. That is, the split-off ligand adsorbs closer to the molecule and the dissociation causes less structural disruption. Both of these facilitate the reverse reaction. We demonstrate formation and disruption of single chemical bonds of nanoconfined molecules with potential application in molecular data storage.

In Situ Imaging of Catalytic Reactions on Tungsten Oxide Nanowires Connects Surface-Ligand Redox Chemistry with Photocatalytic Activity

Semiconductor nanocrystals are promising candidates for generating chemical feedstocks through photocatalysis. Understanding the role of ligands used to prepare colloidal nanocrystals in catalysis is challenging due to the complexity and heterogeneity of nanocrystal surfaces. We use in situ single-molecule fluorescence imaging to map the spatial distribution of active regions along individual tungsten oxide nanowires before and after functionalizing them with ascorbic acid. Rather than blocking active sites, we observed a significant enhancement in activity for photocatalytic water oxidation after treatment with ascorbic acid. While the initial nanowires contain inactive regions dispersed along their length, the functionalized nanowires show high uniformity in their photocatalytic activity. Spatial colocalization of the active regions with their surface chemical properties shows that oxidation of ascorbic acid during photocatalysis generates new oxygen vacancies along the nanowire surface. We demonstrate that controlling surface-ligand redox chemistry during photocatalysis can enhance the active site concentration on nanocrystal catalysts.

Resolving the Heterogeneous Adsorption of Antibody Fragment on a 2D Layered Molybdenum Disulfide by Super-Resolution Imaging

The development of nanomaterials such as two-dimensional (2D) layered materials advanced applications in many fields, including biosensors format based on field-effect transistors. The unique physical and chemical properties of 2D layered materials enable the detection limit of biomolecules as low as ∼1 pg/mL. The majority of 2D layered materials contain different structural features and defects introduced in chemical synthesis and fabrication processing. These structural features have different physicochemical properties, causing heterogeneous adsorption of bioreceptors like antibodies, enzymes, etc. Understanding the correlation between the adsorption of bioreceptors and properties of structural features is essential for building highly efficient, sensitive biosensors based on 2D layered materials. Here, we utilize a single-molecule localization-based super-resolved fluorescence imaging method to unveil the inhomogeneous adsorption of antibody fragments on 2D layered molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂). The surface coverage of antibody fragments on MoS₂ thin flakes is quantitatively measured and compared at different structural features and different layer thicknesses. The methodology in the current work can be extended to study bioreceptor adsorption on other types of 2D layered materials and pave a way to improve biosensors' sensitivity based on defect engineering 2D layered materials.

Classification-based motion analysis of single-molecule trajectories using DiffusionLab

Single-particle tracking is a powerful approach to study the motion of individual molecules and particles. It can uncover heterogeneities that are invisible to ensemble techniques, which places it uniquely among techniques to study mass transport. Analysis of the trajectories obtained with single-particle tracking in inorganic porous hosts is often challenging, because trajectories are short and/or motion is heterogeneous. We present the DiffusionLab software package for motion analysis of such challenging data sets. Trajectories are first classified into populations with similar characteristics to which the motion analysis is tailored in a second step. DiffusionLab provides tools to classify trajectories based on the motion type either with machine learning or manually. It also offers quantitative mean squared displacement analysis of the trajectories. The software can compute the diffusion constant for an individual trajectory if it is sufficiently long, or the average diffusion constant for multiple shorter trajectories. We demonstrate the DiffusionLab approach via the analysis of a simulated data set with motion types frequently observed in inorganic porous hosts, such as zeolites. The software package with graphical user interface and its documentation are freely available.

Superresolved Motions of Single Molecular Catalysts during Polymerization Show Wide Distributions

The motion of single molecular ruthenium catalysts during and after single turnover events of ring-opening metathesis polymerization is imaged through single-molecule superresolution tracking with a positional accuracy of ±32 nm. This tracking is achieved through the real-time incorporation of spectrally tagged monomer units into active polymer chain ends during living polymerization; thus, by design, only active-catalyst motion is detected and imaged, without convolution by inactive catalysts. The catalysts show diverse individualistic diffusive behaviors with respect to time that persist for up to 20 s. Catalysts occupy three mobility populations: quasi-stationary (23%), intermediate (53%, 65 nm), and large (24%, 145 nm) step sizes. Differences in catalyst mobility populations also exist between individual aggregates (p < 0.001). Such differential motion indicates widely different local catalyst microenvironments during the catalytic turnover. These mobility differences are uniquely observable through single-catalyst microscopy and are not measurable through traditional ensemble analytical techniques for characterizing the behavior of molecular catalysts, such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The measured distributions of active molecular catalyst motions would not be readily predictable through modeling or first-principles, and the range likely impacts individual catalyst turnover rate and selectivity. This range plausibly contributes to property distributions observable in bulk polymers, such as molecular weight polydispersity (e.g., 1.9 in this system), leading to a revised understanding of the mechanistic, microscale origins of macroscale polymer properties.

Spatiotemporal-Resolved Hyperspectral Raman Imaging of Plasmon-Assisted Reactions at Single Hotspots

Raman spectroscopy facilitates the study of reacting molecules on single nanomaterials. In recent years, the temporal resolution of Raman spectral measurement has been remarkably reduced to the millisecond level. However, the classic scan-based imaging mode limits the application in the dynamical study of reactions at multiple nanostructures. In this paper, we propose a spatiotemporal-resolved Raman spectroscopy (STRS) technology to achieve fast (∼40 ms) and high spatial resolution (∼300 nm) hyperspectral Raman imaging of single nanostructures. With benefits of the outstanding electromagnetic field enhancement factor by surface plasmon resonance (∼10¹²) and the snapshot hyperspectral imaging strategy, we demonstrate the observation of stepwise Raman signals from single-particle plasmon-assisted reactions. Results reveal that the reaction kinetics is strongly affected by not only the surface plasmon-polariton generation but also the density of Raman molecules. In consideration of the spatiotemporal resolving capability of STRS, we anticipate that it provides a potential platform for further extending the application of Raman spectroscopy methods in the dynamic study of 1D or 2D nanostructures.

Catalytic confinement effects in nanochannels: from biological synthesis to chemical engineering

Catalytic reactions within nanochannels are of significant importance in disclosing the mechanisms of catalytic confinement effects and developing novel reaction systems for scientific and industrial demands. Interestingly, catalytic confinement effects exist in both biological and artificial nanochannels, which enhance the reaction performance of various chemical reactions. In this minireview, we investigate the recent advances on catalytic confinement effects in terms of the reactants, reaction processes, catalysts, and products in nanochannels. A systematic discussion of catalytic confinement effects associated with biological synthesis in bio-nanochannels and catalytic reactions in artificial nanochannels in chemical engineering is presented. Furthermore, we summarize the properties of reactions both in nature and chemical engineering and provide a brief overlook of this research field.

Synthesis and Characterization of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Loaded with Pt Catalysts

Coating the catalyst with a nanoporous layer has been demonstrated to be an effective approach to improve catalyst stability. Herein, we systematically investigate two types of core-shell mesoporous silica nanoparticles with a platinum nanocatalyst using a variety of characterization methods. One of the mesoporous particles has a unique amine ring structure in the middle of a shell (Ring-mSiO2/Pt-5.0/SiO2), and the other one has no ring structure (mSiO2/Pt-5.0/SiO2). Brunauer–Emmett–Teller/Barrett–Joyner–Halenda (BET/BJH) presented a similar surface area for both particles, and the pore size was 2.4 nm. Ultra-Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (USAXS)/ Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) showed the size of mSiO2/Pt-5.0/SiO2 and Ring-mSiO2/Pt-5.0/SiO2 were 420 nm and 272 nm, respectively. It also showed that the ring structure was 30 nm above the silica core. Using high-resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), it was found that the platinum nanoparticles are loaded evenly on the surface of the silica. In situ SAXS heating experiments and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) indicated that the mSiO2/Pt-5.0/SiO2 were more stable during the high temperature, while the Ring-mSiO2/Pt-5.0/SiO2 had more change in the particle.

Real-time imaging of metallic supraparticle assembly during nanoparticle synthesis

Observations of nanoparticle superlattice formation over minutes during colloidal nanoparticle synthesis elude description by conventional understanding of self-assembly, which theorizes superlattices require extended formation times to allow for diffusively driven annealing of packing defects. It remains unclear how nanoparticle position annealing occurs on such short time scales despite the rapid superlattice growth kinetics. Here we utilize liquid phase transmission electron microscopy to directly image the self-assembly of platinum nanoparticles into close packed supraparticles over tens of seconds during nanoparticle synthesis. Electron-beam induced reduction of an aqueous platinum precursor formed monodisperse 2-3 nm platinum nanoparticles that simultaneously self-assembled over tens of seconds into 3D supraparticles, some of which showed crystalline ordered domains. Experimentally varying the interparticle interactions (e.g., electrostatic, steric interactions) by changing precursor chemistry revealed that supraparticle formation was driven by weak attractive van der Waals forces balanced by short ranged repulsive steric interactions. Growth kinetic measurements and an interparticle interaction model demonstrated that nanoparticle surface diffusion rates on the supraparticles were orders of magnitude faster than nanoparticle attachment, enabling nanoparticles to find high coordination binding sites unimpeded by incoming particles. These results reconcile rapid self-assembly of supraparticles with the conventional self-assembly paradigm in which nanocrystal position annealing by surface diffusion occurs on a significantly shorter time scale than nanocrystal attachment.

A generalized kinetic model for compartmentalization of organometallic catalysis

Compartmentalization is an attractive approach to enhance catalytic activity by retaining reactive intermediates and mitigating deactivating pathways. Such a concept has been well explored in biochemical and more recently, organometallic catalysis to ensure high reaction turnovers with minimal side reactions. However, the scarcity of theoretical frameworks towards confined organometallic chemistry impedes broader utility for the implementation of compartmentalization. Herein, we report a general kinetic model and offer design guidance for a compartmentalized organometallic catalytic cycle. In comparison to a non-compartmentalized catalysis, compartmentalization is quantitatively shown to prevent the unwanted intermediate deactivation, boost the corresponding reaction efficiency (γ), and subsequently increase catalytic turnover frequency (TOF). The key parameter in the model is the volumetric diffusive conductance (F_V) that describes catalysts' diffusion propensity across a compartment's boundary. Optimal values of F_V for a specific organometallic chemistry are needed to achieve maximal values of γ and TOF. As illustrated in specific reaction examples, our model suggests that a tailored compartment design, including the use of nanomaterials, is needed to suit a specific organometallic catalytic cycle. This work provides justification and design principles for further exploration into compartmentalizing organometallics to enhance catalytic performance. The conclusions from this work are generally applicable to other catalytic systems that need proper design guidance in confinement and compartmentalization.

Compartmentalization is an attractive approach to enhance catalytic activity by retaining reactive intermediates and mitigating deactivating pathways.

Engineered Nanoconfinement Accelerating Spontaneous Manganese-Catalyzed Degradation of Organic Contaminants

Manganese(III/IV) oxide minerals are known to spontaneously degrade organic pollutants in nature. However, the kinetics are too slow to be useful for engineered water treatment processes. Herein, we demonstrate that nanoscale Mn₃O₄ particles under nanoscale spatial confinement (down to 3-5 nm) can significantly accelerate the kinetics of pollutant degradation, nearly 3 orders of magnitude faster compared to the same reaction in the unconfined bulk phase. We first employed an anodized aluminum oxide scaffold with uniform channel dimensions for experimental and computational studies. We found that the observed kinetic enhancement resulted from the increased surface area of catalysts exposed to the reaction, as well as the increased local proton concentration at the Mn₃O₄ surface and subsequent acceleration of acid-catalyzed reactions even at neutral pH in bulk. We further demonstrate that a reactive Mn₃O₄-functionalized ceramic ultrafiltration membrane, a more suitable scaffold for realistic water treatment, achieved nearly complete removal of various phenolic and aniline pollutants, operated under a common ultrafiltration water flux. Our findings mark an important advance toward the development of catalytic membranes that can degrade pollutants in addition to their intrinsic function as a physical separation barrier, especially since they are based on accelerating natural catalytic pathways that do not require any chemical addition.

Modulating the plasmon-mediated silver oxidation using thiophenol molecules as monitored by in situ SERS spectroscopy

Effective charge separation is essential in plasmon-mediated photochemistry and is usually achieved by constructing plasmon-semiconductor interfaces, which is usually challenging. In this work, by monitoring the plasmon-mediated silver oxidation with in situ Raman spectroscopy, we demonstrate that the adsorbed thiophenol molecules could modulate the rate of photochemical reactions by tuning the charge separation at the plasmon-molecule interfaces. It is found that the thiophenol molecules with strong electron-withdrawing or donating functional groups could accelerate or decelerate the rate of plasmon-mediated silver oxidation, respectively. Owing to the easy tuning of the electronic structures of organic molecules via substitution, our method provides a versatile and convenient approach for the fine modulation of plasmon-mediated photochemical reactions.

Tailoring Heterogeneous Catalysts at the Atomic Level: In Memoriam, Prof. Chia-Kuang (Frank) Tsung

Professor Chia-Kuang (Frank) Tsung made his scientific impact primarily through the atomic-level design of nanoscale materials for application in heterogeneous catalysis. He approached this challenge from two directions: above and below the material surface. Below the surface, Prof. Tsung synthesized finely controlled nanoparticles, primarily of noble metals and metal oxides, tailoring their composition and surface structure for efficient catalysis. Above the surface, he was among the first to leverage the tunability and stability of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) to improve heterogeneous, molecular, and biocatalysts. This article, written by his former students, seeks first to commemorate Prof. Tsung's scientific accomplishments in three parts: (1) rationally designing nanocrystal surfaces to promote catalytic activity; (2) encapsulating nanocrystals in MOFs to improve catalyst selectivity; and (3) tuning the host-guest interaction between MOFs and guest molecules to inhibit catalyst degradation. The subsequent discussion focuses on building on the foundation laid by Prof. Tsung and on his considerable influence on his former group members and collaborators, both inside and outside of the lab.

Bioinspired Solid-State Nanochannel Sensors: From Ionic Current Signals, Current, and Fluorescence Dual Signals to Faraday Current Signals

Inspired from bioprotein channels of living organisms, constructing "abiotic" analogues, solid-state nanochannels, to achieve "smart" sensing towards various targets, is highly seductive. When encountered with certain stimuli, dynamic switch of terminal modified probes in terms of surface charge, conformation, fluorescence property, electric potential as well as wettability can be monitored via transmembrane ionic current, fluorescence intensity, faraday current signals of nanochannels and so on. Herein, the modification methodologies of nanochannels and targets-detecting application are summarized in ions, small molecules, as well as biomolecules, and systematically reviewed are the nanochannel-based detection means including 1) by transmembrane current signals; 2) by the coordination of current- and fluorescence-dual signals; 3) by faraday current signals from nanochannel-based electrode. The coordination of current and fluorescence dual signals offers great benefits for synchronous temporal and spatial monitoring. Faraday signals enable the nanoelectrode to monitor both redox and non-redox components. Notably, by incorporation with confined effect of tip region of a needle-like nanopipette, glorious in-vivo monitoring is conferred on the nanopipette detector at high temporal-spatial resolution. In addition, some outlooks for future application in reliable practical samples analysis and leading research endeavors in the related fantastic fields are provided.

Single-molecule photocatalytic dynamics at individual defects in two-dimensional layered materials

The insightful comprehension of in situ catalytic dynamics at individual structural defects of two-dimensional (2D) layered material, which is crucial for the design of high-performance catalysts via defect engineering, is still missing. Here, we resolved single-molecule trajectories resulted from photocatalytic activities at individual structural features (i.e., basal plane, edge, wrinkle, and vacancy) in 2D layered indium selenide (InSe) in situ to quantitatively reveal heterogeneous photocatalytic dynamics and surface diffusion behaviors. The highest catalytic activity was found at vacancy in a four-layer InSe, up to ~30× higher than that on the basal plane. Moreover, lower adsorption strength of reactant and slower dissociation/diffusion rates of product were found at more photocatalytic active defects. These distinct dynamic properties are determined by lattice structures/electronic energy levels of defects and layer thickness of supported InSe. Our findings shed light on the fundamental understanding of photocatalysis at defects and guide the rational defect engineering.

Quantitative Coassembly for Precise Synthesis of Mesoporous Nanospheres with Pore Structure-Dependent Catalytic Performance

Precise synthesis of porous materials is essential for their applications. Self-assembly is a widely used strategy for synthesizing porous materials, but quantitative control of the assembly process still remains a great challenge. Here, a quantitative coassembly approach is developed for synthesizing resin/silica composite and its derived porous spheres. The assembly behaviors of the carbon and silica precursors are regulated without surfactants and the growth kinetics of the composite spheres are quantitatively controlled. This assembly approach enables the precise control of the size and pore structures of the derived carbon spheres. These carbon spheres provide a good platform to explore the structure-performance relationships of porous materials, and demonstrate their pore structure-dependent performance in catalytic water decontamination. This work provides a simple and robust approach for precise synthesis of porous spheres and brings insights into function-oriented design of porous materials.

Dynamically Monitoring the Photodeposition of Single Cocatalyst Nanoparticles on Semiconductors via Fluorescence Imaging

Loading of cocatalysts through photodeposition has been considered as one of the most promising methods to improve the photocatalytic activities of semiconductors, because of the advantages of intimate contact, easy preparation, and site-directed loading. While extensive efforts have been made to characterize the cocatalysts after synthesis, the growth kinetics of cocatalysts during photodeposition is largely a black box, thus leading to relatively empirical optimizations on the loading strategies of cocatalysts to date. Herein, we dynamically imaged the photodeposition of single cocatalysts on semiconductors via a wide-field fluorescence (FL) microscope, utilizing g-C₃N₄ sheets and CdS nanowires as models. This capability was based on the quenching effect of cocatalysts on the intrinsic FL emission of semiconductors. Single cocatalyst study revealed that FL emission of photocatalysts decayed monoexponentially during photodeposition, and cocatalysts possessed a self-limited growth. The significant heterogeneities (differences) of cocatalysts during photodeposition were also uncovered, regarding the apparent induction time, deposition rate and FL quenching amplitude. These informations were difficult to be accessed using the ex situ characterization. Programmable photodeposition and dissolution of Co_xP were also realized, utilizing a focused laser beam with a spot size of <1 μm. This work explored the hidden details of the growth of cocatalysts during photodeposition, opening up a new avenue to optimize photodeposition for rationally designing more efficient photocatalysts.