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Cabral G, Moss WJ, Brown KM. Proteomic approaches for protein kinase substrate identification in Apicomplexa. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2024; 259:111633. [PMID: 38821187 PMCID: PMC11194964 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2024.111633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Apicomplexa is a phylum of protist parasites, notable for causing life-threatening diseases including malaria, toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, and babesiosis. Apicomplexan pathogenesis is generally a function of lytic replication, dissemination, persistence, host cell modification, and immune subversion. Decades of research have revealed essential roles for apicomplexan protein kinases in establishing infections and promoting pathogenesis. Protein kinases modify their substrates by phosphorylating serine, threonine, tyrosine, or other residues, resulting in rapid functional changes in the target protein. Post-translational modification by phosphorylation can activate or inhibit a substrate, alter its localization, or promote interactions with other proteins or ligands. Deciphering direct kinase substrates is crucial to understand mechanisms of kinase signaling, yet can be challenging due to the transient nature of kinase phosphorylation and potential for downstream indirect phosphorylation events. However, with recent advances in proteomic approaches, our understanding of kinase function in Apicomplexa has improved dramatically. Here, we discuss methods that have been used to identify kinase substrates in apicomplexan parasites, classifying them into three main categories: i) kinase interactome, ii) indirect phosphoproteomics and iii) direct labeling. We briefly discuss each approach, including their advantages and limitations, and highlight representative examples from the Apicomplexa literature. Finally, we conclude each main category by introducing prospective approaches from other fields that would benefit kinase substrate identification in Apicomplexa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Cabral
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - William J Moss
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Kevin M Brown
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
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2
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Schwarzer E, Skorokhod O. Post-Translational Modifications of Proteins of Malaria Parasites during the Life Cycle. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6145. [PMID: 38892332 PMCID: PMC11173270 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are essential for regulating protein functions, influencing various fundamental processes in eukaryotes. These include, but are not limited to, cell signaling, protein trafficking, the epigenetic control of gene expression, and control of the cell cycle, as well as cell proliferation, differentiation, and interactions between cells. In this review, we discuss protein PTMs that play a key role in the malaria parasite biology and its pathogenesis. Phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, lipidation and lipoxidation, glycosylation, ubiquitination and sumoylation, nitrosylation and glutathionylation, all of which occur in malarial parasites, are reviewed. We provide information regarding the biological significance of these modifications along all phases of the complex life cycle of Plasmodium spp. Importantly, not only the parasite, but also the host and vector protein PTMs are often crucial for parasite growth and development. In addition to metabolic regulations, protein PTMs can result in epitopes that are able to elicit both innate and adaptive immune responses of the host or vector. We discuss some existing and prospective results from antimalarial drug discovery trials that target various PTM-related processes in the parasite or host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelin Schwarzer
- Department of Oncology, University of Turin, Via Santena 5 bis, 10126 Turin, Italy;
| | - Oleksii Skorokhod
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Via Accademia Albertina, 13, 10123 Turin, Italy
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Guttery DS, Zeeshan M, Holder AA, Tewari R. The molecular mechanisms driving Plasmodium cell division. Biochem Soc Trans 2024; 52:593-602. [PMID: 38563493 PMCID: PMC11088906 DOI: 10.1042/bst20230403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Malaria, a vector borne disease, is a major global health and socioeconomic problem caused by the apicomplexan protozoan parasite Plasmodium. The parasite alternates between mosquito vector and vertebrate host, with meiosis in the mosquito and proliferative mitotic cell division in both hosts. In the canonical eukaryotic model, cell division is either by open or closed mitosis and karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis; whereas in Plasmodium closed mitosis is not directly accompanied by concomitant cell division. Key molecular players and regulatory mechanisms of this process have been identified, but the pivotal role of certain protein complexes and the post-translational modifications that modulate their actions are still to be deciphered. Here, we discuss recent evidence for the function of known proteins in Plasmodium cell division and processes that are potential novel targets for therapeutic intervention. We also identify key questions to open new and exciting research to understand divergent Plasmodium cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S. Guttery
- School of Life Sciences, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K
- Department of Genetics and Genome Biology, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, U.K
| | - Mohammad Zeeshan
- School of Life Sciences, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K
| | - Anthony A. Holder
- Malaria Parasitology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, U.K
| | - Rita Tewari
- School of Life Sciences, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K
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Tomaz KCP, Tavella TA, Borba JVB, Salazar-Alvarez LC, Levandoski JE, Mottin M, Sousa BKP, Moreira-Filho JT, Almeida VM, Clementino LC, Bourgard C, Massirer KB, Couñago RM, Andrade CH, Sunnerhagen P, Bilsland E, Cassiano GC, Costa FTM. Identification of potential inhibitors of casein kinase 2 alpha of Plasmodium falciparum with potent in vitro activity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2023; 67:e0058923. [PMID: 37819090 PMCID: PMC10649021 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00589-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug resistance to commercially available antimalarials is a major obstacle in malaria control and elimination, creating the need to find new antiparasitic compounds with novel mechanisms of action. The success of kinase inhibitors for oncological treatments has paved the way for the exploitation of protein kinases as drug targets in various diseases, including malaria. Casein kinases are ubiquitous serine/threonine kinases involved in a wide range of cellular processes such as mitotic checkpoint signaling, DNA damage response, and circadian rhythm. In Plasmodium, it is suggested that these protein kinases are essential for both asexual and sexual blood-stage parasites, reinforcing their potential as targets for multi-stage antimalarials. To identify new putative PfCK2α inhibitors, we utilized an in silico chemogenomic strategy involving virtual screening with docking simulations and quantitative structure-activity relationship predictions. Our investigation resulted in the discovery of a new quinazoline molecule (542), which exhibited potent activity against asexual blood stages and a high selectivity index (>100). Subsequently, we conducted chemical-genetic interaction analysis on yeasts with mutations in casein kinases. Our chemical-genetic interaction results are consistent with the hypothesis that 542 inhibits yeast Cka1, which has a hinge region with high similarity to PfCK2α. This finding is in agreement with our in silico results suggesting that 542 inhibits PfCK2α via hinge region interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaira C. P. Tomaz
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases (LDT), Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Tatyana A. Tavella
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases (LDT), Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Joyce V. B. Borba
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases (LDT), Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
- Laboratory of Molecular Modeling and Drug Design (LabMol), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Luis C. Salazar-Alvarez
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases (LDT), Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - João E. Levandoski
- Department of Materials and Bioprocesses Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Melina Mottin
- Laboratory of Molecular Modeling and Drug Design (LabMol), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Bruna K. P. Sousa
- Laboratory of Molecular Modeling and Drug Design (LabMol), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, Brazil
| | - José T. Moreira-Filho
- Laboratory of Molecular Modeling and Drug Design (LabMol), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Vitor M. Almeida
- Centro de Química Medicinal (CQMED), Centro de Biologia Molecular e Engenharia Genética(CBMEG), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
| | - Leandro C. Clementino
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases (LDT), Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Catarina Bourgard
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases (LDT), Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Katlin B. Massirer
- Centro de Química Medicinal (CQMED), Centro de Biologia Molecular e Engenharia Genética(CBMEG), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
| | - Rafael M. Couñago
- Centro de Química Medicinal (CQMED), Centro de Biologia Molecular e Engenharia Genética(CBMEG), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
- Structural Genomics Consortium, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Carolina H. Andrade
- Laboratory of Molecular Modeling and Drug Design (LabMol), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, Brazil
- Center for Research and Advancement of Fragments and Molecular Targets (CRAFT), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center for Excellence in Artificial Intelligence (CEIA), Institute of Informatics, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Per Sunnerhagen
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Elizabeth Bilsland
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Synthetic Biology Laboratory, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Gustavo C. Cassiano
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases (LDT), Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Fabio T. M. Costa
- Laboratory of Tropical Diseases (LDT), Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
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Machado M, Klaus S, Klaschka D, Guizetti J, Ganter M. Plasmodium falciparum CRK4 links early mitotic events to the onset of S-phase during schizogony. mBio 2023; 14:e0077923. [PMID: 37345936 PMCID: PMC10470535 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00779-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum proliferates through schizogony in the clinically relevant blood stage of infection. During schizogony, consecutive rounds of DNA replication and nuclear division give rise to multinucleated stages before cellularization occurs. Although these nuclei reside in a shared cytoplasm, DNA replication and nuclear division occur asynchronously. Here, by mapping the proteomic context of the S-phase-promoting kinase PfCRK4, we show that it has a dual role for nuclear-cycle progression: PfCRK4 orchestrates not only DNA replication, but in parallel also the rearrangement of intranuclear microtubules from hemispindles into early mitotic spindles. Live-cell imaging of a reporter parasite showed that these microtubule rearrangements coincide with the onset of DNA replication. Together, our data render PfCRK4 a key factor for nuclear-cycle progression, linking entry into S-phase with the initiation of mitotic events. In part, such links may compensate for the absence of canonical cell cycle checkpoints in P. falciparum. IMPORTANCE The human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum proliferates in erythrocytes through schizogony, forming multinucleated stages before cellularization occurs. In marked contrast to the pattern of proliferation seen in most model organisms, P. falciparum nuclei multiply asynchronously despite residing in a shared cytoplasm. This divergent mode of replication is, thus, a good target for therapeutic interventions. To exploit this potential, we investigated a key regulator of the parasite's unusual cell cycle, the kinase PfCRK4 and found that this kinase regulated not only DNA replication but also in parallel the rearrangement of nuclear microtubules into early mitotic spindles. Since canonical cell cycle checkpoints have not been described in P. falciparum parasites, linking entry into S-phase and the initiation of mitotic events via a kinase, may be an alternative means to exert control, which is typically achieved by checkpoints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Machado
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- Graduate Program in Areas of Basic and Applied Biology, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Severina Klaus
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Darius Klaschka
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julien Guizetti
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Markus Ganter
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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Functional inactivation of Plasmodium falciparum glycogen synthase kinase GSK3 modulates erythrocyte invasion and blocks gametocyte maturation. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102360. [PMID: 35961464 PMCID: PMC9478393 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths every year. The lack of an effective vaccine and the global spread of multidrug resistant parasites hampers the fight against the disease and underlines the need for new antimalarial drugs. Central to the pathogenesis of malaria is the proliferation of Plasmodium parasites within human erythrocytes. Parasites invade erythrocytes via a coordinated sequence of receptor–ligand interactions between the parasite and the host cell. Posttranslational modifications such as protein phosphorylation are known to be key regulators in this process and are mediated by protein kinases. For several parasite kinases, including the Plasmodium falciparum glycogen synthase kinase 3 (PfGSK3), inhibitors have been shown to block erythrocyte invasion. Here, we provide an assessment of PfGSK3 function by reverse genetics. Using targeted gene disruption, we show the active gene copy, PfGSK3β, is not essential for asexual blood stage proliferation, although it modulates efficient erythrocyte invasion. We found functional inactivation leads to a 69% decreased growth rate and confirmed this growth defect by rescue experiments with wildtype and catalytically inactive mutants. Functional knockout of PfGSK3β does not lead to transcriptional upregulation of the second copy of PfGSK3. We further analyze expression, localization, and function of PfGSK3β during gametocytogenesis using a parasite line allowing conditional induction of sexual commitment. We demonstrate PfGSK3β-deficient gametocytes show a strikingly malformed morphology leading to the death of parasites in later stages of gametocyte development. Taken together, these findings are important for our understanding and the development of PfGSK3 as an antimalarial target.
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Hitz E, Wiedemar N, Passecker A, Graça BAS, Scheurer C, Wittlin S, Brancucci NMB, Vakonakis I, Mäser P, Voss TS. The 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 is an essential upstream activator of protein kinase A in malaria parasites. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001483. [PMID: 34879056 PMCID: PMC8687544 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) signalling is essential for the proliferation of Plasmodium falciparum malaria blood stage parasites. The mechanisms regulating the activity of the catalytic subunit PfPKAc, however, are only partially understood, and PfPKAc function has not been investigated in gametocytes, the sexual blood stage forms that are essential for malaria transmission. By studying a conditional PfPKAc knockdown (cKD) mutant, we confirm the essential role for PfPKAc in erythrocyte invasion by merozoites and show that PfPKAc is involved in regulating gametocyte deformability. We furthermore demonstrate that overexpression of PfPKAc is lethal and kills parasites at the early phase of schizogony. Strikingly, whole genome sequencing (WGS) of parasite mutants selected to tolerate increased PfPKAc expression levels identified missense mutations exclusively in the gene encoding the parasite orthologue of 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PfPDK1). Using targeted mutagenesis, we demonstrate that PfPDK1 is required to activate PfPKAc and that T189 in the PfPKAc activation loop is the crucial target residue in this process. In summary, our results corroborate the importance of tight regulation of PfPKA signalling for parasite survival and imply that PfPDK1 acts as a crucial upstream regulator in this pathway and potential new drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Hitz
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Natalie Wiedemar
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Armin Passecker
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Beatriz A. S. Graça
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Scheurer
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sergio Wittlin
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas M. B. Brancucci
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ioannis Vakonakis
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Till S. Voss
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Alder A, Struck NS, Xu M, Johnson JW, Wang W, Pallant D, Cook MA, Rambow J, Lemcke S, Gilberger TW, Wright GD. A non-reactive natural product precursor of the duocarmycin family has potent and selective antimalarial activity. Cell Chem Biol 2021; 29:840-853.e6. [PMID: 34710358 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2021.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We identify a selective nanomolar inhibitor of blood-stage malarial proliferation from a screen of microbial natural product extracts. The responsible compound, PDE-I2, is a precursor of the anticancer duocarmycin family that preserves the class's sequence-specific DNA binding but lacks its signature DNA alkylating cyclopropyl warhead. While less active than duocarmycin, PDE-I2 retains comparable antimalarial potency to chloroquine. Importantly, PDE-I2 is >1,000-fold less toxic to human cell lines than duocarmycin, with mitigated impacts on eukaryotic chromosome stability. PDE-I2 treatment induces severe defects in parasite nuclear segregation leading to impaired daughter cell formation during schizogony. Time-of-addition studies implicate parasite DNA metabolism as the target of PDE-I2, with defects observed in DNA replication and chromosome integrity. We find the effect of duocarmycin and PDE-I2 on parasites is phenotypically indistinguishable, indicating that the DNA binding specificity of duocarmycins is sufficient and the genotoxic cyclopropyl warhead is dispensable for the parasite-specific selectivity of this compound class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arne Alder
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, 22607 Hamburg, Germany; Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Department of Cellular Parasitology, 20359 Hamburg, Germany; University of Hamburg, Department of Biology, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Nicole S Struck
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Department of Cellular Parasitology, 20359 Hamburg, Germany; M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada; German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Riems, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Min Xu
- M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada
| | - Jarrod W Johnson
- M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada
| | - Wenliang Wang
- M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada
| | - Daniel Pallant
- M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada
| | - Michael A Cook
- M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada
| | - Janis Rambow
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, 22607 Hamburg, Germany; Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Department of Cellular Parasitology, 20359 Hamburg, Germany; University of Hamburg, Department of Biology, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sarah Lemcke
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, 22607 Hamburg, Germany; Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Department of Cellular Parasitology, 20359 Hamburg, Germany; University of Hamburg, Department of Biology, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tim W Gilberger
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, 22607 Hamburg, Germany; Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Department of Cellular Parasitology, 20359 Hamburg, Germany; University of Hamburg, Department of Biology, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Gerard D Wright
- M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada.
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