Transfer of cannabinoids into the milk of dairy cows fed with industrial hemp could lead to Δ9-THC exposure that exceeds acute reference dose

The Pharmacokinetics of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Sheep

The pharmacokinetics of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) has not been established in ruminants. Pharmacokinetic knowledge is important given feeding industrial hemp biomass has been shown to result in tissue residues post feeding in sheep. Due to a lack of testing and available data, a 'maximum' concentration of Δ9-THC has not been currently set for foods of animal origin. Consequently, this study was designed to gain a better understanding of how ruminants process Δ9-THC. Eight Merino ewes were administered with two per os (PO) doses of 88.5 mg Δ9-THC/kg bodyweight (BW) 12 h apart. Blood samples were collected periodically post dosing to determine the pharmacokinetics of Δ9-THC and subcutaneous fat biopsies were taken to investigate the deposition and elimination of Δ9-THC from sheep. An elimination half-life of 31.40 ± 13.87 h was identified, with residues persisting in the subcutaneous fat for 28 d in five of the eight sheep, before decreasing below the limit of detection in all sheep by 91 d. These results support the prolonged presence of Δ9-THC residues previously identified. Thus, imposing a practical withholding period for ruminants involved in the food chain may not be possible, with further research required to investigate how iHemp biomass may be safely fed to ruminants.

The endocannabinoid system in bovine tissues: characterization of transcript abundance in the growing Holstein steer

BACKGROUND

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is highly integrated with seemingly all physiological and pathophysiological processes in the body. There is increasing interest in utilizing bioactive plant compounds, for promoting health and improving production in livestock. Given the established interaction between phytochemicals and the ECS, there are many opportunities for identification and development of therapies to address a range of diseases and disorders. However, the ECS has not been thoroughly characterized in cattle, especially in the gastrointestinal tract. The objective of this study was to characterize the distribution and transcriptional abundance of genes associated with the endocannabinoid system in bovine tissues.

METHODS

Tissues including brain, spleen, thyroid, lung, liver, kidney, mesenteric vein, tongue, sublingual mucosa, rumen, omasum, duodenum, jejunum, ileum and colon were collected from 10-mo old Holstein steers (n = 6). Total RNA was extracted and gene expression was measured using absolute quantification real time qPCR. Gene expression of endocannabinoid receptors CNR1 and CNR2, synthesis enzymes DAGLA, DAGLB and NAPEPLD, degradation enzymes MGLL and FAAH, and transient receptor potential vanilloids TRPV3 and TRPV6 was measured. Data were analyzed in R using a Kruskal-Wallis followed by a Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Results are reported as the median copy number/20 ng of equivalent cDNA (CN) with interquartile range (IQR).

RESULTS

The greatest expression of CNR1 and CNR2 was in the brain and spleen, respectively. Expression of either receptor was not detected in any gastrointestinal tissues, however there was a tendency (P = 0.095) for CNR2 to be expressed above background in rumen. Expression of endocannabinoid synthesis and degradation enzymes varied greatly across tissues. Brain tissue had the greatest DAGLA expression at 641 CN (IQR 52; P ≤ 0.05). DAGLB was detected in all tissues, with brain and spleen having the greatest expression (P ≤ 0.05). Expression of NAPEPLD in the gastrointestinal tract was lowest in tongue and sublingual mucosal. There was no difference in expression of NAPEPLD between hindgut tissues, however these tissues collectively had 592% greater expression than rumen and omasum (P ≤ 0.05). While MGLL was found to be expressed in all tissues, expression of FAAH was only above the limit of detection in brain, liver, kidney, jejunum and ileum. TRPV3 was expressed above background in tongue, rumen, omasum and colon. Although not different from each other, thyroid and duodenum had the greatest expression of TRPV6, with 285 (IQR 164) and 563 (IQR 467) CN compared to all other tissues (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate the complex distribution and variation of the ECS in bovine tissues. Expression patterns suggest that regulatory functions of this system are tissue dependent, providing initial insight into potential target tissues for manipulation of the ECS.

Cannabinoid residuals in tissues of lambs fed spent hemp biomass and consumer's exposure assessment

Spent hemp biomass (SHB) contains trace amounts of cannabinoids, including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), that may accumulate in the tissues of animals consuming SHB. We measured cannabinoid residues in the liver, adipose tissue, and muscle of finishing lambs fed either 10% or 20% SHB for 8 weeks, or 4 weeks followed by 4 weeks SHB withdrawal. We detected multiple cannabinoids in the liver at a similar proportion to the SHB. However, CBD and Δ9-THC were enriched >20-fold in the adipose and muscle, compared to their proportion in SHB. The highest concentration of Δ9-THC was detected in adipose tissue and was 7.4-times higher than in muscle. Most cannabinoids were undetectable in tissues after 4 weeks of clearance. The consumers' exposure assessment on Δ9-THC revealed tissue levels of total THC (THCA+Δ9-THC) that exceed the acute reference dose of 1 μg/kg BW across population groups. When consuming meat from the lambs fed 10% and 20% SHB, the maximum total THC exposure was 2.03 and 7.32 μg/kg BW, respectively, equal to or below the Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level of 36 μg/kg BW, the No Observed Adverse Effect Level of 12 μg/kg BW or a tolerable dose intake of 7 μg/kg BW.

Determination of Cannabinoids in Meat Products and Animal Feeds in Singapore Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

There has been a growing interest in the use of hemp as an animal feed ingredient considering its economic value and nutritional properties. However, there is a paucity of research regarding the safety of hemp-based animal feed currently. Thus, this raises safety concerns on the potential transfer of cannabinoids from hemp-based animal feed to animal products intended for human consumption and its health effects. As such, the detection and quantification of cannabinoids in meat and animal feeds would be desirable for monitoring purposes. In this study, a simple, rapid and sensitive method for the simultaneous quantification of four major cannabinoids (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabinol and tetrahydrocannabinolic acid) in meat and animal feeds by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was successfully developed and validated. The method was selective and sensitive, achieving limits of detection and quantification for the four cannabinoids from 5 to 7 µg/kg and 15 to 21 µg/kg, respectively. The overall recovery with matrix-matched calibration curves for the cannabinoids ranged from 87-115%. The coefficients of variation were between 2.17-13.38% for intraday precision and 3.67-12.14% for inter-day precision. The method was subsequently applied to monitor cannabinoids in 120 meat and 24 animal feed samples. No cannabinoid was detected, suggesting no imminent food safety concerns arising from the potential incorporation of hemp and by-products in animal feed and nutrition under the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices.

Recent Advanced Methods for Extracting and Analyzing Cannabinoids from Cannabis-Infused Edibles and Detecting Hemp-Derived Contaminants in Food (2013-2023): A Comprehensive Review

Cannabis-infused edibles are food products infused with a cannabis extract. These edibles include baked goods, candies, and beverages, offering an alternative way to consume cannabis instead of smoking or vaporizing it. Ensuring the accurate detection of cannabis-infused edibles and identification of any contaminants is crucial for public health and safety. This is particularly important for compliance with legal regulations as these substances can have significant psychoactive effects, especially on unsuspecting consumers such as children or individuals with certain medical conditions. Using efficient extraction methods can greatly improve detection accuracy, ensuring that the concentration of cannabinoids in edibles is measured correctly and adheres to dosage guidelines and legal limits. This review comprehensively examines the preparation and extraction techniques for cannabinoid edibles. It covers methods such as solid-phase extraction, enhanced matrix removal-lipid, QuEChERS, dissolution and dispersion techniques, liquid-phase extraction, and other emerging methodologies along with analytical techniques for cannabinoid analysis. The main analytical techniques employed for the determination of cannabinoids include liquid chromatography (LC), gas chromatography (GC), direct analysis in real time (DART), and mass spectrometry (MS). The application of these extraction and analytical techniques is further demonstrated through their use in analyzing specific edible samples, including oils, candies, beverages, solid coffee and tea, snacks, pet food, and contaminated products.

Partially substituting alfalfa hay with hemp forage in the diet of goats improved feed efficiency, ruminal fermentation pattern and microbial profiles

The use of hemp as a forage source in livestock diets has been less studied because bioactive residues in animal tissues may pose a risk to consumers. This study investigated the effects of partial substitution of alfalfa hay (AH) with hemp forage (HF) in growing goat diets on growth performance, carcass traits, ruminal fermentation characteristics, rumen microbial communities, blood biochemistry, and antioxidant indices. Forty Xiangdong black goats with body weight (BW) 7.82 ± 0.57 kg (mean ± SD) were grouped by BW and randomly assigned into one of the four treatment diets (n = 10/treatment) in a completely randomized design. The goats were fed ad libitum total mixed rations containing 60% forage and 40% concentrate (DM basis). The diets included control (CON; 60% AH and 40% concentrate), 55% AH and 5% HF (HF5), 50% AH and 10% HF (HF10), and 40% AH and 20% HF (HF20). Increasing the substitution of HF for AH linearly decreased (P < 0.01) DM intake and improved feed conversion efficiency. However, final BW, average daily gain, carcass traits, meat quality, and most blood biochemistry indices did not differ among treatments. The ruminal NH3-N concentration and blood urine nitrogen linearly increased (P < 0.01) with increasing substitution rate of HF, whereas the total volatile fatty acids concentration quadratically changed (P < 0.01). Substitution of AH with HF had no effect on the diversity and richness of ruminal microbes, though it linearly decreased (P = 0.040) Prevotella_1 and linearly increased (P = 0.017) Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group. The cannabinoids and/or their metabolites were detected in both ruminal filtrates (8) and plasma (4), however, no detectable cannabinoid-related residues were observed in meat. These results indicate that the HF could be used to partially substitute AH in goat diets, whereas the effects vary between substitution rates of HF for AH. Although no cannabinoid-related residues were detected in meat, the presence of cannabinoids residues in blood warrants further study of HF feeding to confirm the cannabinoids residues are not present in the animal products.

Ensiling conditions and changes of cannabinoid concentration in industrial hemp

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is an important source of fibre and seed oil and protein. By-products of industrial hemp fibre production, like hemp seeds and cakes, can be used as feed for all animal species as fat and protein source and the whole hemp plant (including stalk and leaves) might be a suitable fibre source for ruminants. However, a previous feeding experiment with leaf-flower-seed hemp silage, made from an industrial hemp variety, demonstrated detrimental effects on cow health parameters and a significant transfer of several cannabinoids, including the psychoactive tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THC), into cow's milk, posing a potential risk to the safety of consumers. Based on those observations, the present study tested the hypothesis that anaerobic fermentation, as during ensiling, increases the content of ∆9-THC in hemp. Therefore, silages of whole plants from the industrial hemp Cannabis sativa L. var. Ivory were prepared in a multifactorial design, with the four treatments 1) untreated control (CON), 2) addition of 10 mL per kg fresh weight homofermentative lactobacilli at 105 cfu/mL (LBAC), 3) addition of 10 mL per kg fresh weight homofermentative lactobacilli at 105 cfu/mL plus 30 g molasses (LBACmol) and 4) addition of propionic acid (10 mL/kg fresh weight) (PRO). Ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray ionisation (UHPLC-MS/MS) was performed for analysis of cannabinoids in fresh hemp material and after 10 and 90 days of ensiling. The study revealed that ensiling decreased all acid forms of analysed cannabinoids in hemp at about 40-65% of the initial values after 90 days of storage, with the exception of cannabinolic acid (CBNA), and CBGA, the acidic form of cannabigerol (CBG). This decrease in most acidic forms was accompanied by an increase of the corresponding non-acidic forms of all cannabinoids, including the psychoactive ∆9-THC. Thus, although ensiling decreases the total cannabinoid content, psychoactive compounds like ∆9-THC can increase, enhancing the risk for animal health and a transfer of these substances into animal derived products.

The Most Important Metabolic Diseases in Dairy Cattle during the Transition Period

This review paper provides an in-depth analysis of three critical metabolic diseases affecting dairy cattle such as subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA), ketosis, and hypocalcemia. SARA represents a disorder of ruminal fermentation that is characterized by extended periods of depressed ruminal pH below 5.5-5.6. In the long term, dairy herds experiencing SARA usually exhibit secondary signs of the disease, such as episodes of laminitis, weight loss and poor body condition despite adequate energy intake, and unexplained abscesses usually 3-6 months after an episode of SARA. Depressed milk-fat content is commonly used as a diagnostic tool for SARA. A normal milk-fat test in Holstein dairy cows is >4%, so a milk-fat test of <3% can indicate SARA. However, bulk tank testing of milk fat is inappropriate to diagnose SARA at the herd level, so when >4 cows out of 12 and <60 days in milk are suspected to have SARA it can be considered that the herd has a problem. The rapid or abrupt introduction of fresh cows to high-concentrate diets is the most common cause of SARA. Changes in ruminal bacterial populations when exposed to higher concentrate rations require at least about 3 weeks, and it is recommended that concentrate levels increase by no more than 400 g/day during this period to avoid SARA. Ketosis, a prevalent metabolic disorder in dairy cattle, is scrutinized with a focus on its etiological factors and the physiological changes leading to elevated ketone bodies. In total mix ration-fed herds, an increased risk of mastitis and reduced fertility are usually the first clinical signs of ketosis. All dairy cows in early lactation are at risk of ketosis, with most cases occurring in the first 2-4 weeks of lactation. Cows with a body condition score ≥3.75 on a 5-point scale at calving are at a greater risk of ketosis than those with lower body condition scores. The determination of serum or whole blood acetone, acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) concentration, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), and liver biopsies is considered the best way to detect and monitor subclinical ketosis, while urine or milk cowside tests can also be used in on-farm monitoring programs. Concentrations >1.0 mmol/L or 1.4 mmol/L blood or serum BHB are considered diagnostic of subclinical ketosis. The standard threshold used for blood is 1.2 mmol/L, which corresponds to thresholds of 100 mcmol/L for milk and 15 mg/dL for urine. Oral administration of propylene glycol (250-400 g, every 24 h for 3-5 days) is the standard and most efficacious treatment, as well as additional therapy with bolus glucose treatment. Hypocalcemia is a disease of adult dairy cows in which acute hypocalcemia causes acute to peracute, afebrile, flaccid paralysis that occurs most commonly at or soon after parturition. Dairy cows are at considerable risk for hypocalcemia at the onset of lactation, when daily calcium excretion suddenly increases from about 10 g to 30 g per day. Cows with hypocalcemia have a more profound decrease in blood calcium concentration-typically below 5.5 mg/dL. The prevention of parturient paresis has been historically approached by feeding cows low-calcium diets during the dry period. Negative calcium balance triggers calcium mobilization before calving and better equips the cow to respond to the massive calcium needs at the onset of lactation. Calcium intake must be limited to <20 g per day for calcium restriction to be effective. The most practical and proven method for monitoring hypocalcemia is by feeding cows an acidogenic diet for ~3 weeks before calving. Throughout the review, emphasis is placed on the importance of early diagnosis and proactive management strategies to mitigate the impact of these metabolic diseases on dairy cattle health and productivity. The comprehensive nature of this paper aims to serve as a valuable resource for veterinarians, researchers, and dairy farmers seeking a deeper understanding of these prevalent metabolic disorders in dairy cattle.

Chemical Characterization of 29 Industrial Hempseed (Cannabis sativa L.) Varieties

Hemp is considered one of the potential novel crops for human and animal nutrition. This study aimed to determine the complete chemical composition of 29 different varieties of whole hempseeds. Fatty acid composition, amino acid profile, mineral composition, and cannabinoids content were also evaluated. All hempseed varieties were milled to obtain whole hempseed flour. Differences between hempseed varieties were significant (p < 0.05) for all measured parameters. Proximate composition results showed that crude protein and fat contents varied from 21.6-28.9% and 21.1-35.7%, respectively. Fatty acid profiles revealed that the three major fatty acids were linoleic acid (52.79-57.13%) followed by α-linolenic acid (12.62-20.24%), and oleic acid (11.08-17.81%). All essential amino acids were detected in all varieties, with arginine (12.66-17.56 mg/100 g protein) present in abundance, whereas lysine was limiting. Substantial differences were found in the mineral content, and potassium (509.96-1182.65 mg/100 g) and iron (5.06-32.37 mg/100 mg) were the main macro- and microminerals found. All cannabinoids were found in small traces and tetrahydrocannabidiol (THC) was only detected in five varieties. To conclude, the nutritional composition of hempseeds with hull makes them suitable to be added into the diets of humans or animals as a highly beneficial novel ingredient.

Fast and sensitive LC-MS/MS method for quantification of cannabinoids and their metabolites in plasma of cattle fed hemp

Hemp-based materials have gained interest as alternative feed ingredients for livestock. However, safety concerns arise regarding the transfer of cannabinoids from the plant to the animals. Addressing these concerns requires the use of methods capable of detecting and quantifying cannabinoids in livestock. In this study, a fast and sensitive method was developed for quantification of cannabinoids and cannabinoid metabolites in cattle plasma using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The extraction of cannabinoids from the plasma matrix was achieved by combining the Captiva Enhanced Matrix Removal-Lipid clean-up and salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction procedure. The developed method underwent validation using various analytical parameters, and the results demonstrated good accuracy, precision, specificity, and high sensitivity. The method was applied to real plasma samples obtained from cattle fed hemp for 2 weeks, and successfully detected various cannabinoids, including delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Furthermore, the study revealed that 7-carboxy cannabidiol, a metabolite of cannabidiol, was the predominant cannabinoid present in the cattle plasma throughout the feeding period, which could remain detectable for weeks after the hemp feeding had ended.

Feeding spent hemp biomass to lactating dairy cows: Effects on performance, milk components and quality, blood parameters, and nitrogen metabolism

The legalization of industrial hemp by the 2018 Farm Bill in the United States has driven a sharp increase in its cultivation, including for cannabinoid extraction. Spent hemp biomass (SHB), produced from the extraction of cannabinoids, can potentially be used as feed for dairy cows; however, it is still illegal to do so in the United States, according to the US Food and Drug Administration Center for Veterinary Medicine, due to the presence of cannabinoids and the lack of data on the effect on animals. To assess the safety of this byproduct as feed for dairy cows, late-lactation Jersey cows (245 ± 37 d in milk; 483 ± 38 kg body weight; 10 multiparous and 8 primiparous) received a basal total mixed ration (TMR) diet plus 13% alfalfa pellet (CON) or 13% pelleted SHB for 4 wk (intervention period [IP]) followed by 4 wk of withdrawal period (WP), where all cows received only the basal TMR during WP. The dry matter intake (DMI), body weight, body condition score, milk yield, milk components, and fatty acid profile, blood parameters, N metabolism, methane emission, and activity were measured. Results indicated that feeding SHB decreased DMI mainly due to the low palatability of the SHB pellet, as the cows consumed only 7.4% of the total TMR with 13.0% SHB pellet offered in the ration. However, milk yield was not affected during the IP and was higher than CON during the WP, leading to higher milk yield/DMI. Milk components were not affected, except for a tendency in decreased fat percentage. Milk fat produced by cows fed SHB had a higher proportion of oleate and bacteria-derived fatty acids than CON. The activity of the cows was not affected, except for a shorter overall lying time in SHB versus CON cows during the IP. Blood parameters related to immune function were not affected. Compared with CON, cows fed SHB had a lower cholesterol concentration during the whole experiment and higher β-hydroxybutyric acid during the WP, while a likely low-grade inflammation during the IP was indicated by higher ceruloplasmin and reactive oxidative metabolites. Other parameters related to liver health and inflammatory response were unaffected, except for a tendency for higher activity of alkaline phosphatase during IP and a lower activity of gamma-glutamyl transferase during WP in the SHB group versus CON. The bilirubin concentration was increased in cows fed SHB, suggesting a possible decrease in the clearance ability of the liver. Digestibility of the dry matter and protein and methane emission were not affected by feeding SHB. The urea, purine derivatives, and creatinine concentration in urine was unaffected, but cows fed SHB had higher N use efficiency and lower urine volume. Altogether, our data revealed a relatively low palatability of SHB affecting DMI with minimal biological effects, except for a likely low-grade inflammation, a higher N use efficiency, and a possible decrease in liver clearance. Overall, the data support the use of SHB as a safe feed ingredient for lactating dairy cows.

The Effects of Fresh Hemp Leaf Supplementation (Cannabis sativa) on the Physiological and Carcass Characteristics and Meat Quality in Transported Goats

Transportation stress adversely affects animal health, productivity, and meat quality. Bioactive plant compounds may alleviate transit stress in livestock. This study evaluated the effects of fresh hemp leaf supplementation on blood metabolites, performance, carcass traits, and meat quality in transported goats. Twenty male goats (15 ± 2.76 kgBW) were investigated, some were given a hemp supplement (n = 10) and the remaining goats were used as a control group (n = 10). The hemp group received 10 g/30 kg body weight of fresh leaves prior to transportation. Blood samples were analyzed before and after the 200 km journey. The goats were slaughtered after transit and the quality of the meat examined. In the controlled group, transportation increased neutrophils and electrolytes, but decreased lymphocytes and hemoglobin. In contrast in the hemp-supplemented group, the hemp maintained this animal blood parameters. Body weight and carcass yield, however, did not differ between the two groups. Hemp reduced meat redness at 1 h postmortem but had minimal effects on its pH, color, water holding capacity, tenderness, and texture after 24 h. However, hemp supplementation did alter the odor profiles between the two groups detected by electronic nose sensors. In conclusion, fresh hemp leaf supplementation maintained blood metabolites and had minor advantageous effects on meat quality in response to transportation stress in goats. Further investigation using hemp supplements shows potential to alleviate transit stress, although higher doses may be required in order to further enhance its benefits.

Comparing dehulled hemp meal and canola meal as a protein supplement for lactating dairy cows

Effects of replacing canola meal with dehulled hemp meal in the diet of lactating dairy cows on the dry matter intake (DMI), milk production, milk fatty acid profile, blood metabolites, total-tract nutrient digestibility, and transfer of cannabinoids were determined in 12 lactating, nonpregnant Holstein cows. These cows were used in a 3 × 3 Latin square design with three 3-wk experimental periods consisting of 2 wk of adaptation and 1 wk of sampling. Cows received basal partial mixed rations supplemented with either 15% dry matter (DM) canola meal (CM15), 15% DM dehulled hemp meal (HM15), or 7.5% DM dehulled hemp meal and 7.5% DM canola meal (CM7.5HM7.5). Diets were formulated to be isoenergetic and isonitrogenous, but the HM15 and CM7.5HM7.5 diets contained, on average 1.2 percentage units more crude protein (CP) that the CM15 diet. The CP of the dehulled hemp meal contained less soluble protein than that of canola meal. Hence, the intake of soluble protein did not differ among diets. Canola meal contained less crude fat than hemp seed meal (3.46% vs. 8.25% DM). The lipid fraction of canola meal fat contained more oleic acid (C18:1 cis-9; 47.3 vs. 14.9 g/100 g of fatty acids, FA) and vaccenic acid (18:1 cis-11; 13.7 vs. 1.2 g/100 g of FA) and less linoleic acid (C18:2n-6; 21.9 vs. 55.7 g/100 g of FA) and α linolenic acid (C18:3n-3; 3.2 vs. 8.9 g/100 g of FA) than the lipid fraction of hemp seed meal. The hemp seed meal contained 4.9 µg/g cannabidiol, 5.1 µg/g cannabidiolic acid, and 0.1 µg/g tertahydroxycannabinolic acid A. Treatments did not differ in DMI, yields of milk, milk protein and milk fat, total-tract neutral detergent fiber digestibility, and blood plasma concentrations of β-hydroxybutyrate and nonesterified FA. Apparent total-tract DM digestibility was lowest in the HM15 treatment, whereas the CP digestibility and the concentrations of urea in blood, urine, and milk were lowest in the CM15 treatment. Cannabinoids were not detected in urine, milk, and blood plasma. Replacing canola meal with hemp seed meal increased milk fat contents of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), which were 3.42, 3.90, and 4.25 g/100 g of FA for the CM15, CM7.5HM7.5, and HM15 treatments, respectively. Especially, the milk fat contents of 18:2n-6 (1.99 vs. 1.56 g/100 g FA) and 18:3n-3 (0.31 vs. 0.43 g/100 g FA) were increased by hemp meal feeding. Especially, the milk fat contents of 18:2n-6 (1.99 vs. 1.56 g/100 g FA) and 18:3n-3 (0.31 vs. 0.43 g/100 g FA) were increased by hemp meal feeding. Our data show that hemp seed meal is a suitable and safe replacement for canola meal as a feed for lactating dairy cows and that this replacement increases CP digestibility and urea in urine, milk, and blood plasma, as well the PUFA content of milk fat.

Quality and safety of hemp meal as a protein supplement for nonlactating dairy cows

Hemp seed meal may be a suitable protein supplement for dairy cows, but its quality and safety as a dairy cow feed has not yet been fully investigated. As a result, dry matter intake (DMI), rumen fermentation, blood metabolites, total-tract digestibility, and concentrations of cannabinoids in blood plasma, urine, muscle, and adipose tissues were compared among nonlactating Holstein dairy cows receiving a basal partial mixed ration that was supplemented with either 10.2% dry matter (DM) hemp meal (HM treatment), 13.5% DM canola meal (CM treatment), or 6.25% DM hemp meal and 6.16% DM canola meal (HC treatment). Diets were formulated to be isoenergetic and isonitrogenous. Six nonlactating, nonpregnant Holstein cows were used in a repeated 3 × 3 Latin square design trial with three 3-wk experimental periods. The first 2 weeks of each served as adaptation. Sample and data collection occurred during the third week of each period. Neither the partial mixed ration nor canola meal contain cannabidiol (CBD), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), d9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), or tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA). However, the hemp meal contained 3.0, 4.4, 0, and 0.1 μg/g DM of CBD, CBDA, THC, and THCA, respectively. Treatment did not affect DMI, pH, concentrations of volatile fatty acids or ammonia in the rumen, total-tract digestibilities of DM and crude protein, or blood plasma concentrations of glucose, urea, β-hydroxybutyrate, and nonesterified fatty acids. Hence, based on these metabolites, treatment did not affect the nutritional status of the cows. However, the total-tract neutral detergent fiber digestibility of the CM treatment (43%) was higher than that of the HM treatment (38%). No cannabinoids were detected in blood plasma, rumen fluid, and urine. Cannabinoids were also not detected in kidney, liver, urine, muscle, or adipose tissues at the end of the experiment when cows had undergone all treatments. Feces from all treatments did not contain detectable concentrations of THC or THCA, but feces of cows on the HC treatment contained 0.42 and 0.40 μg/g DM of CBD and CBDA, respectively. Feces of cows on the HM treatment contained 0.68 and 0.67 μg/g DM of CBD and CBDA, respectively. This indicated that most ingested CBD and CBDA were not absorbed but instead were excreted in the feces. Our data show dietary inclusion rates of up to 10.2% of DM. We find that hemp meal is a high-quality and safe protein supplement for nonlactating dairy cows.

Perturbation of 3D nuclear architecture, epigenomic dysregulation and aging, and cannabinoid synaptopathy reconfigures conceptualization of cannabinoid pathophysiology: part 1-aging and epigenomics

Much recent attention has been directed toward the spatial organization of the cell nucleus and the manner in which three-dimensional topologically associated domains and transcription factories are epigenetically coordinated to precisely bring enhancers into close proximity with promoters to control gene expression. Twenty lines of evidence robustly implicate cannabinoid exposure with accelerated organismal and cellular aging. Aging has recently been shown to be caused by increased DNA breaks. These breaks rearrange and maldistribute the epigenomic machinery to weaken and reverse cellular differentiation, cause genome-wide DNA demethylation, reduce gene transcription, and lead to the inhibition of developmental pathways, which contribute to the progressive loss of function and chronic immune stimulation that characterize cellular aging. Both cell lineage-defining superenhancers and the superanchors that control them are weakened. Cannabis exposure phenocopies the elements of this process and reproduces DNA and chromatin breakages, reduces the DNA, RNA protein and histone synthesis, interferes with the epigenomic machinery controlling both DNA and histone modifications, induces general DNA hypomethylation, and epigenomically disrupts both the critical boundary elements and the cohesin motors that create chromatin loops. This pattern of widespread interference with developmental programs and relative cellular dedifferentiation (which is pro-oncogenic) is reinforced by cannabinoid impairment of intermediate metabolism (which locks in the stem cell-like hyper-replicative state) and cannabinoid immune stimulation (which perpetuates and increases aging and senescence programs, DNA damage, DNA hypomethylation, genomic instability, and oncogenesis), which together account for the diverse pattern of teratologic and carcinogenic outcomes reported in recent large epidemiologic studies in Europe, the USA, and elsewhere. It also accounts for the prominent aging phenotype observed clinically in long-term cannabis use disorder and the 20 characteristics of aging that it manifests. Increasing daily cannabis use, increasing use in pregnancy, and exponential dose-response effects heighten the epidemiologic and clinical urgency of these findings. Together, these findings indicate that cannabinoid genotoxicity and epigenotoxicity are prominent features of cannabis dependence and strongly indicate coordinated multiomics investigations of cannabinoid genome-epigenome-transcriptome-metabolome, chromatin conformation, and 3D nuclear architecture. Considering the well-established exponential dose-response relationships, the diversity of cannabinoids, and the multigenerational nature of the implications, great caution is warranted in community cannabinoid penetration.

Epigenomic and Other Evidence for Cannabis-Induced Aging Contextualized in a Synthetic Epidemiologic Overview of Cannabinoid-Related Teratogenesis and Cannabinoid-Related Carcinogenesis

BACKGROUND

Twelve separate streams of empirical data make a strong case for cannabis-induced accelerated aging including hormonal, mitochondriopathic, cardiovascular, hepatotoxic, immunological, genotoxic, epigenotoxic, disruption of chromosomal physiology, congenital anomalies, cancers including inheritable tumorigenesis, telomerase inhibition and elevated mortality.

METHODS

Results from a recently published longitudinal epigenomic screen were analyzed with regard to the results of recent large epidemiological studies of the causal impacts of cannabis. We also integrate theoretical syntheses with prior studies into these combined epigenomic and epidemiological results.

RESULTS

Cannabis dependence not only recapitulates many of the key features of aging, but is characterized by both age-defining and age-generating illnesses including immunomodulation, hepatic inflammation, many psychiatric syndromes with a neuroinflammatory basis, genotoxicity and epigenotoxicity. DNA breaks, chromosomal breakage-fusion-bridge morphologies and likely cycles, and altered intergenerational DNA methylation and disruption of both the histone and tubulin codes in the context of increased clinical congenital anomalies, cancers and heritable tumors imply widespread disruption of the genome and epigenome. Modern epigenomic clocks indicate that, in cannabis-dependent patients, cannabis advances cellular DNA methylation age by 25-30% at age 30 years. Data have implications not only for somatic but also stem cell and germ line tissues including post-fertilization zygotes. This effect is likely increases with the square of chronological age.

CONCLUSION

Recent epigenomic studies of cannabis exposure provide many explanations for the broad spectrum of cannabis-related teratogenicity and carcinogenicity and appear to account for many epidemiologically observed findings. Further research is indicated on the role of cannabinoids in the aging process both developmentally and longitudinally, from stem cell to germ cell to blastocystoids to embryoid bodies and beyond.