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Lubega J, Hallman MD, Lupo PJ, Fu Y, Peterson L, Scheurer ME. Association of population mixing and acute lymphocytic leukemia in children and young adults. Cancer Epidemiol 2020; 66:101722. [PMID: 32353774 DOI: 10.1016/j.canep.2020.101722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The association of population mixing (PM1) with childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL2) has been reproduced in multiple studies. However, the mechanism underlying this association is unknown. METHODS Ecological study of incidence of pediatric ALL among 253 counties in the State of Texas (USA) using surrogates of genetic and environmental PM. ALL incidence data were obtained from Texas Cancer Registry and county population statistics from the US Census Bureau. Poisson regression was used to compare ALL incidence and PM. RESULTS There is substantial and variable genetic and environmental PM among counties in Texas. Indicators of genetic PM including proportion of multiracial households, ratio of Hispanics to non-Hispanics, and ratio of foreign to native-born residents were all significantly associated with a higher incidence of ALL (IRR3 1.81 (95CI 1.05-3.13), 1.67 (95CI 1.16-2.37), and 1.59 (95CI 1.03-2.48), respectively). Surrogates of environmental PM namely population density and persons per household were not associated with incidence of ALL; IRRs 1.29 (95CI 0.4-4.15) and 1.47 (95CI 0.89-2.43). CONCLUSIONS These findings are consistent with prior patterns and magnitudes of PM association with ALL. Our findings suggest that the implicated mechanism of leukemogenesis in PM may be genetically transmitted rather than environmental.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Lubega
- Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children's Cancer and Hematology Centers, United States.
| | - M David Hallman
- University of Texas - School of Public Health, Houston, United States
| | - Philip J Lupo
- Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children's Cancer Center, Houston, United States
| | - Yunxin Fu
- University of Texas - School of Public Health, Houston, United States
| | - Leif Peterson
- Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, United States
| | - Michael E Scheurer
- Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children's Cancer Center, Houston, United States
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Lupatsch JE, Kreis C, Zwahlen M, Niggli F, Ammann RA, Kuehni CE, Spycher BD. Temporal association between childhood leukaemia and population growth in Swiss municipalities. Eur J Epidemiol 2016; 31:763-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s10654-016-0162-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Lupatsch JE, Egger M, Kuehni CE, Spycher BD. The authors' reply: Population mixing and childhood leukaemia. Eur J Epidemiol 2015; 30:1333-4. [PMID: 26666542 DOI: 10.1007/s10654-015-0109-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Judith E Lupatsch
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Egger
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Claudia E Kuehni
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ben D Spycher
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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Population mixing and the risk of childhood leukaemia in Switzerland: a census-based cohort study. Eur J Epidemiol 2015; 30:1287-98. [DOI: 10.1007/s10654-015-0042-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Kinlen LJ. An examination, with a meta-analysis, of studies of childhood leukaemia in relation to population mixing. Br J Cancer 2012; 107:1163-8. [PMID: 22955857 PMCID: PMC3461174 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2012.402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Marked influxes of people into rural areas, termed rural population mixing (PM), have been associated with excesses of childhood leukaemia (CL), consistent with mini-epidemics of a mainly immunising, subclinical infection to which CL is a rare response. For such situations of rural PM would promote contacts between infected and susceptible individuals, the latter tending to have a higher than average prevalence in rural or isolated areas. Confusion has arisen from some workers applying the term PM to non-rural situations lacking known recent change. Methods: Available PM studies using the original definition of influxes were examined, a meta-analysis carried out of studies of CL in relation to exposure to high levels of rural PM, and also a detailed analysis by age group. Results: The meta-analysis of 17 studies shows a significant CL excess in association with rural PM: overall relative risk (RR) at ages 0–14: 1.57; 95% confidence interval 1.44–1.72; at 0–4 years 1.72 (1.54–1.91). This contrasts with the absence of an excess of CL in similarly exposed urban areas (RR 1.00; 0.93–1.07), pointing to a high level of immunity there. The mixed results of studies using other definitions of PM were summarised. The excess associated with rural PM below age 2 years (RR 1.51; 1.17, 1.92) was not appreciably different from that at later childhood ages. Conclusion: Much of the inconsistency among studies ostensibly about CL and PM reflects the use of definitions other than that originally proposed. The broad similarity of the CL excess below age 2 with that at older childhood ages is inconsistent with the Greaves’ delayed infection hypothesis, since any infection underlying the former is difficult to consider as delayed.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Kinlen
- Cancer Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford, Richard Doll Building, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LF, UK.
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Goodman M, Naiman JS, Goodman D, LaKind JS. Cancer clusters in the USA: what do the last twenty years of state and federal investigations tell us? Crit Rev Toxicol 2012; 42:474-90. [PMID: 22519802 PMCID: PMC3408895 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2012.675315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Background Cancer clusters garner considerable public and legislative attention, and there is often an expectation that cluster investigations in a community will reveal a causal link to an environmental exposure. At a 1989 national conference on disease clusters, it was reported that cluster studies conducted in the 1970s and 1980s rarely, if ever, produced important findings. We seek to answer the question: Have cancer cluster investigations conducted by US health agencies in the past 20 years improved our understanding of cancer etiology, or informed cancer prevention and control? Methods We reviewed publicly available cancer cluster investigation reports since 1990, obtained from literature searches and by canvassing all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Investigations were categorized with respect to cancer type(s), hypothesized exposure, whether perceived clusters were confirmed (e.g. by elevated incidence), and conclusions about a link between cancer(s) of concern and hypothesized environmental exposure(s). Results We reviewed 428 investigations evaluating 567 cancers of concern. An increase in incidence was confirmed for 72 (13%) cancer categories (including the category “all sites”). Three of those were linked (with variable degree of certainty) to hypothesized exposures, but only one investigation revealed a clear cause. Conclusions It is fair to state that extensive efforts to find causes of community cancer clusters have not been successful. There are fundamental shortcomings to our current methods of investigating community cancer clusters. We recommend a multidisciplinary national dialogue on creative, innovative approaches to understanding when and why cancer and other chronic diseases cluster in space and time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Goodman
- Department of Epidemiology, Emory University School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Wing S, Richardson DB, Hoffmann W. Cancer risks near nuclear facilities: the importance of research design and explicit study hypotheses. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2011; 119:417-421. [PMID: 21147606 PMCID: PMC3080920 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1002853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In April 2010, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission asked the National Academy of Sciences to update a 1990 study of cancer risks near nuclear facilities. Prior research on this topic has suffered from problems in hypothesis formulation and research design. OBJECTIVES We review epidemiologic principles used in studies of generic exposure-response associations and in studies of specific sources of exposure. We then describe logical problems with assumptions, formation of testable hypotheses, and interpretation of evidence in previous research on cancer risks near nuclear facilities. DISCUSSION Advancement of knowledge about cancer risks near nuclear facilities depends on testing specific hypotheses grounded in physical and biological mechanisms of exposure and susceptibility while considering sample size and ability to adequately quantify exposure, ascertain cancer cases, and evaluate plausible confounders. CONCLUSIONS Next steps in advancing knowledge about cancer risks near nuclear facilities require studies of childhood cancer incidence, focus on in utero and early childhood exposures, use of specific geographic information, and consideration of pathways for transport and uptake of radionuclides. Studies of cancer mortality among adults, cancers with long latencies, large geographic zones, and populations that reside at large distances from nuclear facilities are better suited for public relations than for scientific purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Wing
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7435, USA.
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Abstract
The excess of childhood leukaemia (CL) in Seascale, near the Sellafield nuclear reprocessing site in rural NW England, suggested that an epidemic of an underlying infection, to which CL is a rare response, is promoted by marked population mixing (PM) in rural areas, in which the prevalence of susceptibles is higher than average. This hypothesis has been confirmed by 12 studies in non-radiation situations. Of the five established CL excesses near nuclear sites, four are associated with significant PM; in the fifth, the Krummel power station in Germany, the subject has not been thoroughly investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kinlen
- Cancer Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford, Richard Doll Building, Headington, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK.
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Abstract
This review considers recent studies regarding the role of environmental factors in the etiology of childhood leukemia and lymphoma. Potential environmental risk factors identified for childhood leukemia include exposure to magnetic fields of more than 0.4 micro Tessla, exposure to pesticides, solvents, benzene and other hydrocarbons, maternal alcohol consumption (but only for certain genotypes), contaminated drinking water, infections, and high birth weight. The finding of space-time clustering and seasonal variation also supports a role for infections. There is little evidence linking childhood leukemia with lifetime exposure to ionizing radiation although fetal exposures to X-rays are associated with increased risk. Breast-feeding, consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables and having allergies all appear to be protective. Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is confined to areas of the world where malaria is endemic, with the additional involvement of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) as a co-factor. Environmental risk factors suggested for other types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) include exposure to ionizing radiation (both lifetime and antenatal), pesticides, and, in utero exposure to cigarette smoke, benzene and nitrogen dioxide (via the mother). Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is especially associated with higher levels of socioeconomic deprivation, but breast-feeding seems to confer lower risk. This is consistent with an infection or immune-response mediated etiology for HL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Q McNally
- School of Clinical Medical Sciences, Child Health, University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK.
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Buffler PA, Kwan ML, Reynolds P, Urayama KY. Environmental and Genetic Risk Factors for Childhood Leukemia: Appraising the Evidence. Cancer Invest 2009. [DOI: 10.1081/cnv-46402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Is population mixing associated with childhood type 1 diabetes in Canterbury, New Zealand? Soc Sci Med 2009; 68:625-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2008] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Taylor JC, Law GR, Boyle PJ, Feng Z, Gilthorpe MS, Parslow RC, Rudge G, Feltbower RG. Does population mixing measure infectious exposure in children at the community level? Eur J Epidemiol 2008; 23:593-600. [PMID: 18704706 DOI: 10.1007/s10654-008-9272-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2007] [Accepted: 06/27/2008] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies focusing on the etiology of childhood chronic diseases have used population mixing as a proxy for the level of infection circulating in a community. We compared different measures of population mixing (based on residential migration and commuting) and other demographic variables, derived from the United Kingdom Census, with hospital inpatient data on infections from two Government Office Regions in England (Eastern and the West Midlands) to inform the development of an infectious disease proxy for future epidemiological studies. The association between rates of infection and the population mixing measures was assessed, using incidence rate ratios across census areas, from negative binomial regression. Commuting distance demonstrated the most consistent association with admissions for infections across the two regions; areas with a higher median distance travelled by commuters leaving the area having a lower rate of hospital admissions for infections. Deprived areas and densely populated areas had a raised rate of admissions for infections. Assuming hospital admissions are a reliable indicator of common infection rates, the results from this study suggest that commuting distance is a consistent measure of population mixing in relation to infectious disease and deprivation and population density are reliable demographic proxies for infectious exposure. Areas that exhibit high levels of population mixing do not necessarily possess raised rates of hospital admissions for infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Taylor
- Paediatric Epidemiology Group, Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.
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Abstract
In a national study, we investigated the incidence of childhood leukaemia (CL) over a 14-year period in France in relation to several measures based on the proportion of individuals who changed address between the last two national censuses. A positive association was found with the proportion of migrants who came from a distant place. The further the migrants came, the higher was the incidence of leukaemia, particularly among children aged 0-4 years in 'isolated' communes at the time of diagnosis (RR=1.4, 95% CI: 1.1,1.8 in the highest category of migration distance). Although the role of the population density was less obvious, a more marked association was found above a certain threshold. No association with the proportion of commuters was observed.
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Clark BR, Ferketich AK, Fisher JL, Ruymann FB, Harris RE, Wilkins JR. Evidence of population mixing based on the geographical distribution of childhood leukemia in Ohio. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007; 49:797-802. [PMID: 17366525 DOI: 10.1002/pbc.21181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This ecologic study examined the geographic distribution of childhood leukemias in Ohio, 1996-2000, among children aged 0-19 for evidence that population mixing may be a factor. PROCEDURE (1) State incidence rates were compared to Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) rates for each year and for the 5-year period, 1996-2000; (2) incidence rates for each of Ohio's 88 counties were compared to statewide rates; and (3) county incidence rates were compared based on population density, population growth, and rural/urban locale. SEER*Stat version 5.0 was used to derive age-specific and 0-19 age-adjusted rates. Expected values, standardized incidence ratios (SIRs), and Poisson P-values were calculated with Excel using the indirect method of standardization. RESULTS Of the 585 cases, 73.3% were acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), 16.6% acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), 3.2% acute monocytic leukemia (AMoL), and 2.6% chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Rates for total leukemia burden were significantly below national levels for all races (P = 0.00001), likely due to poor ascertainment of cases. Yearly incidence rates for 1996-2000 were stable for ALL and AML; CML rates declined over the period. Based on 2000 Census and intercensal population estimates for 1996-2000, statistically higher rates for ALL were noted for counties experiencing >10% population change 1990-2000 (P < 0.05), especially for ages 1-4 (P < 0.03) in counties with 10-20% growth. Counties 67.9-99.2% urban experienced fewer than expected cases of AML + AMoL (P < 0.06). CONCLUSION Data support Kinlen's theory of population mixing and warrant further studies in Ohio, the US and other countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda R Clark
- Division of Health Behavior and Health Promotion, School of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Ohio 43210, USA.
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Abstract
A marked improvement in the outcome of patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia has been achieved with chemotherapeutic agents developed between the 1950s and 1970s. As the limits of optimizing the use of old drugs are reached, most adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia still succumb to their disease and leukemia remains the leading cause of nonaccidental death in children. Salvage regimens, based mostly on different combinations of the same agents used in front-line therapy, carry a high incidence of morbidity and dismal long-term survival rates. New therapeutic strategies are needed. Clofarabine, a next-generation deoxyadenosine analog, has demonstrated significant activity in children and adults with refractory lymphoid and myeloid leukemia in early clinical trials and was granted approval for use in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in second or higher relapse. This is the only anticancer drug to receive primary indication for use in children over the past decade. Ongoing studies are exploring the benefit of clofarabine combinations in less heavily pretreated patients and the use of different dose schedules in a variety of hematological malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sima Jeha
- St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
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Rudant J, Baccaïni B, Ripert M, Goubin A, Bellec S, Hémon D, Clavel J. Population-mixing at the place of residence at the time of birth and incidence of childhood leukaemia in France. Eur J Cancer 2006; 42:927-33. [PMID: 16530405 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2005.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2005] [Revised: 12/06/2005] [Accepted: 12/12/2005] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The association between the risk of childhood leukaemia before age 7 years and population-mixing at the place of residence at birth was investigated by retrospectively considering all the children born in mainland French communes between 1st January 1990 and 31st December 1998. An increased risk of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia was found with higher levels of migration for children residing at birth in isolated communes with a population density > or =50 people per km2 (SIRR = 2.59, 95% CI: 1.48-4.49). No association was observed with lower population densities. For children residing in non-isolated communes at birth, the results were similar but less marked. The risk tended to increase only for population densities > or =5000 people per km2 (SIRR = 1.57, 95% CI: 0.99-2.52). The findings are consistent with epidemic models and support the hypothesis of an infectious aetiology relating to population-mixing. Population density may be seen as an indicator of the opportunity of contacts between inhabitants and should therefore be taken into account when investigating an infectious hypothesis. This is the first systematic study of population-mixing at the place of residence at the time of birth to be conducted on a national scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rudant
- INSERM, U754, IFR69, Université Paris-Sud XI - 16 Avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier, F-94807 Villejuif Cédex, France
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Heath CW. Community clusters of childhood leukemia and lymphoma: evidence of infection? Am J Epidemiol 2005; 162:817-22. [PMID: 16177146 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwi289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Information suggesting that infection may be an underlying cause of childhood leukemia and lymphoma includes the occasional appearance of cases in time-space clusters within communities and increased incidence after communities experience marked population influxes (population mixing). Among 50 clusters involving cases of childhood leukemia and lymphoma investigated in the United States in 1961-1977, eight showed suggestive evidence of underlying infectious causation. In seven of the eight communities, case occurrence was associated with the attendance of patients or their siblings at particular schools or with family participation in particular church groups. In five, rapid population growth had occurred. Other findings included the possible association of cases with unusual patterns of infectious disease (rheumatic illness in one community, chickenpox in another) and with other childhood diseases, including other forms of childhood cancer. In one community, two cases of Burkitt's lymphoma occurred at the same time, and a third case arose 3 years later in boys living in a newly developing neighborhood. Such community observations support the need for continued biologic research regarding the possible role of infectious agents in childhood leukemia and lymphoma.
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Mejía-Aranguré JM, Bonilla M, Lorenzana R, Juárez-Ocaña S, de Reyes G, Pérez-Saldivar ML, González-Miranda G, Bernáldez-Ríos R, Ortiz-Fernández A, Ortega-Alvarez M, Martínez-García MDC, Fajardo-Gutiérrez A. Incidence of leukemias in children from El Salvador and Mexico City between 1996 and 2000: population-based data. BMC Cancer 2005; 5:33. [PMID: 15807901 PMCID: PMC1090561 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-5-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2004] [Accepted: 04/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are very few studies that report the incidence of acute leukemias in children in Latin America. This work assesses the incidence of acute leukemias, between 1996 and 2000, in children from 0-14 years old who were attended at the Mexican Social Security Institute in Mexico City and in children from 0-11 years old in El Salvador. METHODS DESIGN Population-based data. Hospitals: In San Salvador, El Salvador, Hospital Nacional de Niños "Benjamin Bloom", the only center in El Salvador which attends all children, younger than 12 years, with oncologic disease. The Pediatric Hospital and the General Hospital of the Mexican Social Security Institute in Mexico City, the only centers in Mexico City which attend all those children with acute leukemia who have a right to this service. DIAGNOSIS All patients were diagnosed by bone marrow smear and were divided into acute lymphoid leukemia (ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), and unspecified leukemias (UL). The annual incidence rate (AIR) and average annual incidence rate (AAIR) were calculated per million children. Cases were stratified by age and assigned to one of four age strata: 1) <1 year; 2) 1-4 years; 3) 5-9 years, or 4) 10-14 or 10-11 years, for Mexico City and El Salvador, respectively. RESULTS The number of cases was 375 and 238 in El Salvador and Mexico City, respectively. AAIRs in Mexico City were 44.9, 10.6, 2.5, 0.5, and 58.4 per million children for ALL, AML, CML, UL, and total leukemias, respectively. The AAIRs in El Salvador could not be calculated because the fourth age stratum in El Salvador included children only from 0-11 years old. The incidence rates for the Salvadorian group of 0-11 year olds were 34.2, 7.1, 0.6, 0.2, and 43.2 per million children for ALL, AML, CML, UL, and total leukemias, respectively. CONCLUSION Reported AIRs for each age group in El Salvador were similar to those from other American countries. The AAIR of ALL in Mexico City is one of the highest reported for North America.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Miguel Bonilla
- Hematology-Oncology, Hospital Nacional de Niños "Benjamín Bloom", San Salvador, El Salvador
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador
| | | | - Servando Juárez-Ocaña
- Clinical Epidemiology, Pediatric Hospital, Centro Médico Nacional "Siglo XXI", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Gladys de Reyes
- Hematology-Oncology, Hospital Nacional de Niños "Benjamín Bloom", San Salvador, El Salvador
| | | | | | | | | | - Manuel Ortega-Alvarez
- Clinical Epidemiology, Pediatric Hospital, Centro Médico Nacional "Siglo XXI", Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Arturo Fajardo-Gutiérrez
- Clinical Epidemiology, Pediatric Hospital, Centro Médico Nacional "Siglo XXI", Mexico City, Mexico
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Parslow RC, Law GR, Feltbower RG, McKinney PA. Childhood leukaemia incidence and the population mixing hypothesis in US SEER data. Br J Cancer 2005; 92:978; author reply 979-80. [PMID: 15756263 PMCID: PMC2361896 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- R C Parslow
- Paediatric Epidemiology Group, Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Leeds Institute of Genetics, Health and Therapeutics (LIGHT), University of Leeds, 30 Hyde Terrace, Leeds LS2 9LN, UK
- Paediatric Epidemiology Group, Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Leeds Institute of Genetics, Health and Therapeutics (LIGHT), University of Leeds, 30 Hyde Terrace, Leeds LS2 9LN, UK. E-mail:
| | - G R Law
- Epidemiology and Genetics Unit, Department of Health Sciences, University of York, Seebohm Rowntree Building, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - R G Feltbower
- Paediatric Epidemiology Group, Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Leeds Institute of Genetics, Health and Therapeutics (LIGHT), University of Leeds, 30 Hyde Terrace, Leeds LS2 9LN, UK
| | - P A McKinney
- Paediatric Epidemiology Group, Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Leeds Institute of Genetics, Health and Therapeutics (LIGHT), University of Leeds, 30 Hyde Terrace, Leeds LS2 9LN, UK
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Abstract
There are three current hypotheses concerning infectious mechanisms in the aetiology of childhood leukaemia: exposure in utero or around the time of birth, delayed exposure beyond the first year of life to common infections and unusual population mixing. No specific virus has been definitively linked with childhood leukaemia and there is no evidence to date of viral genomic inclusions within leukaemic cells. The case-control and cohort studies have revealed equivocal results. Maternal infection during pregnancy has been linked with increased risk whilst breast feeding and day care attendance in the first year of life appear to be protective. There is inconclusive evidence from studies on early childhood infectious exposures, vaccination and social mixing. Some supportive evidence for an infectious aetiology is provided by the findings of space-time clustering and seasonal variation. Spatial clustering suggests that higher incidence is confined to specific areas with increased levels of population mixing, particularly in previously isolated populations. Ecological studies have also shown excess incidence with higher population mixing. The marked childhood peak in resource-rich countries and an increased incidence of the childhood peak in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) (occurring at ages 2-6 years predominantly with precursor B-cell ALL) is supportive of the concept that reduced early infection may play a role. Genetically determined individual response to infection may be critical in the proliferation of preleukaemic clones as evidenced by the human leucocyte antigen class II polymorphic variant association with precursor B-cell and T-cell ALL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Q McNally
- Cancer Research UK Paediatric and Familial Cancer Research Group, Central Manchester and Manchester Children's University Hospitals NHS Trust, Manchester, UK.
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Kinlen LJ. Childhood leukemia, military aviation facilities, and population mixing. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2004; 112:A797-A798. [PMID: 15471717 PMCID: PMC1247579 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.112-a797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kinlen
- Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Oxford University, Gibson Building, Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford OX2 6HE, UK
- Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Oxford University, Gibson Building, Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford OX2 6HE, UK. E-mail:
| | - R Doll
- Clinical Trials Service Unit, Oxford University, Harkness Building, Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford OX2 6HE, UK
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