Biochemical and pharmacological profile of a tetrasubstituted furanone as a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor

Clinically approved small-molecule drugs for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a persistent autoimmune ailment that is typified by the development of pannus, proliferation of synovial lining cells, microvascular neogenesis, infiltration of interstitial inflammatory cells, and destruction of cartilage and bone tissue. The disease not only imposes physical pain and economic burden on patients, but also results in a significant decline in their quality of life, rendering it a leading cause of disability. General treatment and drugs are commonly employed to alleviate the condition and symptoms of RA. Cyclooxygenase (COX), janus kinase (JAK), glucocorticoid receptor (GR) et al. have been identified as the main therapeutic targets for RA. This article provides a comprehensive review of the clinical applications and synthetic routes of 26 representative drugs for the treatment of RA, with the aim of facilitating the discovery of more effective new drugs for the treatment of this debilitating disease.

Quantitative Proteomics Analysis Reveals That Cyclooxygenase-2 Modulates Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Complex IV in Cardiomyocytes

The biochemical mechanisms of cell injury and myocardial cell death after myocardial infarction remain unresolved. Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), a key enzyme in prostanoid synthesis, is expressed in human ischemic myocardium and dilated cardiomyopathy, but it is absent in healthy hearts. To assess the role of COX-2 in cardiovascular physiopathology, we developed transgenic mice that constitutively express functional human COX-2 in cardiomyocytes under the control of the α-myosin heavy chain promoter. These animals had no apparent phenotype but were protected against ischemia-reperfusion injury in isolated hearts, with enhanced functional recovery and diminished cellular necrosis. To further explore the phenotype of this animal model, we carried out a differential proteome analysis of wild-type vs. transgenic cardiomyocytes. The results revealed a tissue-specific proteomic profile dominated by mitochondrial proteins. In particular, an increased expression of respiratory chain complex IV proteins was observed. This correlated with increased catalytic activity, enhanced respiratory capacity, and increased ATP levels in the heart of COX-2 transgenic mice. These data suggest a new link between COX-2 and mitochondria, which might contribute to the protective cardiac effects of COX-2 against ischemia-reperfusion injury.

From Vietnamese plants to a biflavonoid that relieves inflammation by triggering the lipid mediator class switch to resolution

Chronic inflammation results from excessive pro-inflammatory signaling and the failure to resolve the inflammatory reaction. Lipid mediators orchestrate both the initiation and resolution of inflammation. Switching from pro-inflammatory to pro-resolving lipid mediator biosynthesis is considered as efficient strategy to relieve chronic inflammation, though drug candidates exhibiting such features are unknown. Starting from a library of Vietnamese medical plant extracts, we identified isomers of the biflavanoid 8-methylsocotrin-4'-ol from Dracaena cambodiana, which limit inflammation by targeting 5-lipoxygenase and switching the lipid mediator profile from leukotrienes to specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPM). Elucidation of the absolute configurations of 8-methylsocotrin-4'-ol revealed the 2S,γS-isomer being most active, and molecular docking studies suggest that the compound binds to an allosteric site between the 5-lipoxygenase subdomains. We identified additional subordinate targets within lipid mediator biosynthesis, including microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase-1. Leukotriene production is efficiently suppressed in activated human neutrophils, macrophages, and blood, while the induction of SPM biosynthesis is restricted to M2 macrophages. The shift from leukotrienes to SPM was also evident in mouse peritonitis in vivo and accompanied by a substantial decrease in immune cell infiltration. In summary, we disclose a promising drug candidate that combines potent 5-lipoxygenase inhibition with the favorable reprogramming of lipid mediator profiles.

Fractions of Boswellia Serrata Suppress LTA4, LTC4, Cyclooxygenase-2 Activities and mRNA in HL-60 Cells and Reduce Lung Inflammation in BALB/c Mice

BACKGROUND

Purified fractions from a Boswellia serrata Roxb. Ex. Colebr. (Burseraceae) extract (ETOH and DCM) contain biologically active compounds that are well known for having inflammation inhibitory properties. In this work, the purified fractions were tested in-vitro for LTC₄, LTA₄ and COX-2 activities using ELISA and qPCR was performed to determine gene regulation in human leukemia (HL-60) Cells. Two D-imaging tomography was performed to determine the anti-inflammatory activities of the fractions in BALB/c mouse model of lung inflammation.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate anti-inflammatory activities of bioactive compounds of Boswellia serrata purified fractions.

METHODS

In-vitro MTT assay was performed in HL-60 cell lines for measuring the toxicity/ viability of the cells. ELISA tests were performed for evaluating LTA₄, LTC₄ and COX-2 activities. qPCR was performed to evaluate the expression of mRNA in HL-60 cells. In-vivo experiments were performed in OVA sensitized and challenged BALB/c mice at two doses of Boswellia serrata purified fraction containing 6% Boswellic acid of 50 and 100mg/kg body weight were given orally and the standard drug dexamethasone (DXA, 4 mg/kg body weight) and reduction in lung inflammation was assessed by using an IVIS Xenogen in-vivo fluorescence imaging system.

RESULTS

A purified fraction of Boswellia serrata ETOH extracts reduced leukotriene-C₄-synthase activity by 52%, leuktotriene-A₄-hydrolase activity by 22% and COX-2 activity by 99% with an IC50 of 12.5μg/ml. Intragastric administration of the purified fraction of Boswellia serrata at two doses of 50mg/kg b.w. and 100mg/kg b.w., respectively along with 2-3% HPMC resulted in a ~51% (P value <0.01) reduction in OVA induced lung inflammation in BALB/c mice as observed by imaging tomography. Treatment of the OVA challenged mice with standard drug dexamethasone (DXA) reduced inflammation by ~66% with significant value (P<0.0001).

CONCLUSION

The present study describes that Boswellia serrata ethanolic extracts purified fraction (ETOH-BS) possess significant anti-inflammatory activities in HL-60 and in BALB/c and further supports for its use as Ayurvedic medicines traditionally in the treatment of lung disorders including allergy and asthma.

Paracetamol - An old drug with new mechanisms of action

Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is the most commonly used over-the-counter (OTC) drug in the world. Despite its popularity and use for many years, the safety of its application and its mechanism of action are still unclear. Currently, it is believed that paracetamol is a multidirectional drug and at least several metabolic pathways are involved in its analgesic and antipyretic action. The mechanism of paracetamol action consists in inhibition of cyclooxygenases (COX-1, COX-2, and COX-3) and involvement in the endocannabinoid system and serotonergic pathways. Additionally, paracetamol influences transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and voltage-gated Kv7 potassium channels and inhibits T-type Cav3.2 calcium channels. It also exerts an impact on L-arginine in the nitric oxide (NO) synthesis pathway. However, not all of these effects have been clearly confirmed. Therefore, the aim of our paper was to summarize the current state of knowledge of the mechanism of paracetamol action with special attention to its safety concerns.

In Vitro and In Vivo Anti-inflammatory Activity of Bovine Milkfat Globule (MFGM)-derived Complex Lipid Fractions

Numerous health related properties have been reported for bovine milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) and its components. Here we present novel data on the in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of various MFGM preparations which confirm and extend the concept of MFGM as a dietary anti-inflammatory agent. Cell-based assays were used to test the ability of MFGM preparations to modulate levels of the inflammatory mediators IL-1β, nitric oxide, superoxide anion, cyclo-oxygenase-2, and neutrophil elastase. In rat models of arthritis, using MFGM fractions as dietary interventions, the phospholipid-enriched MFGM isolates were effective in reducing adjuvant-induced paw swelling while there was a tendency for the ganglioside-enriched isolate to reduce carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema. These results indicate that the anti-inflammatory activity of MFGM, rather than residing in a single component, is contributed to by an array of components acting in concert against various inflammatory targets. This confirms the potential of MFGM as a nutritional intervention for the mitigation of chronic and acute inflammatory conditions.

6-Methoxyflavanone abates cisplatin-induced neuropathic pain apropos anti-inflammatory mechanisms: A behavioral and molecular simulation study

Cisplatin is used as a first line therapy in treating cancers. However, its use is often accompanied with the development of peripheral neuropathy. 6-Methoxyflavanone (6-MeOF) is a positive allosteric modulator at GABAA receptors and is known for attenuating diabetes-induced neuropathic pain. Neuropathy was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats (150-250 g), via intraperitoneal injection of cisplatin (3 mg/kg) once a week for four consecutive weeks. 6-MeOF (25, 50 and 75 mg/kg, i.p) and gabapentin (75 mg/kg, i.p) were administered 30 min before each cisplatin injection. Static and dynamic allodynia were assessed using von Frey filaments and cotton buds. The anti-inflammatory activity was analyzed with plethysmometer. Body weights were also measured each week. The binding affinity of 6-MeOF with chloride channel, Cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) was studied using docking approach. The in vitro COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitory effect of 6-MeOF was conducted with COX colorimetric assay. Administration of cisplatin for four consecutive weeks induced static (decreased paw withdrawal threshold; PWT) and dynamic allodynia (decreased paw withdrawal latency; PWL). Co-administration of 6-MeOF for four weeks significantly attenuated the cisplatin-induced expression of nocifensive behaviors observed as significant increase in PWT and PWL. Moreover, it also prevented the body weight loss induced by cisplatin administration. In silico studies depicted a good interaction of 6-MeOF with chloride ion channels and COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. The in vitro study confirmed the inhibitory activity of 6-MeOF for COX-1 and COX-2. 6-MeOF may be effective in attenuating cisplatin-induced allodynia, probably through interaction with GABAergic receptors and reducing inflammation.

PDGF-BB regulates the pulmonary vascular tone: impact of prostaglandins, calcium, MAPK- and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling and actin polymerisation in pulmonary veins of guinea pigs

Background

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB and its receptor PDGFR are highly expressed in pulmonary hypertension (PH) and mediate proliferation. Recently, we showed that PDGF-BB contracts pulmonary veins (PVs) and that this contraction is prevented by inhibition of PDGFR-β (imatinib/SU6668). Here, we studied PDGF-BB-induced contraction and downstream-signalling in isolated perfused lungs (IPL) and precision-cut lung slices (PCLS) of guinea pigs (GPs).

Methods

In IPLs, PDGF-BB was perfused after or without pre-treatment with imatinib (perfused/nebulised), the effects on the pulmonary arterial pressure (P_PA), the left atrial pressure (P_LA) and the capillary pressure (P_cap) were studied and the precapillary (R_pre) and postcapillary resistance (R_post) were calculated. Perfusate samples were analysed (ELISA) to detect the PDGF-BB-induced release of prostaglandin metabolites (TXA₂/PGI₂). In PCLS, the contractile effect of PDGF-BB was evaluated in pulmonary arteries (PAs) and PVs. In PVs, PDGF-BB-induced contraction was studied after inhibition of PDGFR-α/β, L-Type Ca²⁺-channels, ROCK/PKC, prostaglandin receptors, MAP2K, p38-MAPK, PI3K-α/γ, AKT/PKB, actin polymerisation, adenyl cyclase and NO. Changes of the vascular tone were measured by videomicroscopy. In PVs, intracellular cAMP was measured by ELISA.

Results

In IPLs, PDGF-BB increased P_PA, P_cap and R_post. In contrast, PDGF-BB had no effect if lungs were pre-treated with imatinib (perfused/nebulised). In PCLS, PDGF-BB significantly contracted PVs/PAs which was blocked by the PDGFR-β antagonist SU6668. In PVs, inhibition of actin polymerisation and inhibition of L-Type Ca²⁺-channels reduced PDGF-BB-induced contraction, whereas inhibition of ROCK/PKC had no effect. Blocking of EP_1/3- and TP-receptors or inhibition of MAP2K-, p38-MAPK-, PI3K-α/γ- and AKT/PKB-signalling prevented PDGF-BB-induced contraction, whereas inhibition of EP₄ only slightly reduced it. Accordingly, PDGF-BB increased TXA₂ in the perfusate, whereas PGI₂ was increased in all groups after 120 min and inhibition of IP-receptors did not enhance PDGF-BB-induced contraction. Moreover, PDGF-BB increased cAMP in PVs and inhibition of adenyl cyclase enhanced PDGF-BB-induced contraction, whereas inhibition of NO-formation only slightly increased it.

Conclusions

PDGF-BB/PDGFR regulates the pulmonary vascular tone by the generation of prostaglandins, the increase of calcium, the activation of MAPK- or PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling and actin remodelling. More insights in PDGF-BB downstream-signalling may contribute to develop new therapeutics for PH.

The phospholipase A2 pathway controls a synaptic cholesterol ester cycle and synapse damage

The cellular prion protein (PrP^C) acts as a scaffold protein that organises signalling complexes. In synaptosomes, the aggregation of PrP^C by amyloid-β (Aβ) oligomers attracts and activates cytoplasmic phospholipase A₂ (cPLA₂), leading to synapse degeneration. The signalling platform is dependent on cholesterol released from cholesterol esters by cholesterol ester hydrolases (CEHs). The activation of cPLA₂ requires cholesterol released from cholesterol esters by cholesterol ester hydrolases (CEHs), enzymes dependent upon platelet activating factor (PAF) released by activated cPLA₂ This demonstrates a positive feedback system in which activated cPLA₂ increased cholesterol concentrations, which in turn facilitated cPLA₂ activation. PAF was also required for the incorporation of the tyrosine kinase Fyn and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 into Aβ-PrP^C-cPLA₂ complexes. As a failure to deactivate signalling complexes can lead to pathology, the mechanisms involved in their dispersal were studied. PAF facilitated the incorporation of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT)-1 into Aβ-PrP^C-cPLA₂-COX-2-Fyn complexes. The esterification of cholesterol reduced cholesterol concentrations, causing dispersal of Aβ-PrP^C-cPLA₂-COX-2-Fyn complexes and the cessation of signalling. This study identifies PAF as a key mediator regulating the cholesterol ester cycle, activation of cPLA₂ and COX-2 within synapses, and synapse damage.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Meloxicam in East Asian Populations: The Role of Ethnicity on Drug Response

We aimed to reanalyze the differences in the pharmacokinetics (PKs) of meloxicam in East Asian populations based on a population approach using previously published data and to investigate the factors found in population PK analysis that affect the pharmacodynamics (PDs) of meloxicam. Population PK analysis was performed in 119 healthy male subjects (30 Japanese, 30 Chinese, 29 Korean, and 30 white) under strictly controlled trial conditions with regulated meals and a single lot of the drug. We found that CYP2C9 genotype and lean body mass were statistically significant predictors of clearance and volume of distribution, respectively. A statistical significant difference in the PK parameters between ethnic groups could not be identified. Simulations using PK/PD models showed that CYP2C9 genotype is the factor that affects the PDs of meloxicam. The genetic polymorphisms highlighted in this study would be beneficial for conducting clinical trials in East Asians with similar genetic backgrounds.

Cyclooxygenase-2 expression in hepatocytes attenuates non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and liver fibrosis in mice

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is involved in different liver diseases but little is known about the significance of COX-2 in the development and progression of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). This study was designed to elucidate the role of COX-2 expression in hepatocytes in the pathogenesis of steatohepatitis and hepatic fibrosis. In the present work, hepatocyte-specific COX-2 transgenic mice (hCOX-2-Tg) and their wild-type (Wt) littermates were either fed methionine-and-choline deficient (MCD) diet to establish an experimental non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) model or injected with carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) to induce liver fibrosis. In our animal model, hCOX-2-Tg mice fed MCD diet showed lower grades of steatosis, ballooning and inflammation than Wt mice, in part by reduced recruitment and infiltration of hepatic macrophages, with a corresponding decrease in serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, hCOX-2-Tg mice showed a significant attenuation of the MCD diet-induced increase in oxidative stress and hepatic apoptosis observed in Wt mice. Even more, hCOX-2-Tg mice treated with CCl4 had significantly lower stages of fibrosis and less hepatic content of collagen, hydroxyproline and pro-fibrogenic markers than Wt controls. Collectively, our data indicates that constitutive hepatocyte COX-2 expression ameliorates NASH and liver fibrosis development in mice by reducing inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis and by modulating activation of hepatic stellate cells, respectively, suggesting a possible protective role for COX-2 induction in NASH/NAFLD progression.

Prostaglandin H synthase kinetics in the two-phase aqueous-micellar system

Reaction mixture for PGHS (prostaglandin-H-synthase) is a two-phase system including micellar hydrophobic phase and hydrophilic aqueous phase. Reagents added to the mixture are distributed between phases, thus concentrations of reagents dissolved in phases can differ significantly from their overall contents. Using dynamic light scattering we found that the hydrophobic phase produced by tween-20 consists of micelles, which radius (4-5nm) does not depend on either tween-20 overall content (0.1%-1% v/v) or arachidonic acid (AA) addition (10-1000μM) or PGHS addition (1μM). Tween-20 overall content changing from 0.1% to 2% v/v dramatically affected COX kinetic, but accounting AA distribution between phases allowed us to estimate "true" parameters, independent of the tween-20 overall content and the concentration of another substrate: KM(Ox) equals 9.8μM O2 in the aqueous phase or 0.0074bar in the gaseous phase, KM(AA) equals 5400μM AA in the phase of tween-20 micelles and 5400/PμM AA in the aqueous phase (P is the distribution ratio for the AA between the aqueous phase and the hydrophobic phase (P≫1000)). This approach allowed to evaluate PS, the distribution ratio for the AA between the hydrophobic phase and the PGHS active center (PS ~310). This coefficient indicates the AA selectivity toward the cyclooxygenase active center.

PET imaging of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in a pre-clinical colorectal cancer model

Background

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is the inducible isoform of the cyclooxygenase enzyme family. COX-2 is involved in tumor development and progression, and frequent overexpression of COX-2 in a variety of human cancers has made COX-2 an important drug target for cancer treatment. Non-invasive imaging of COX-2 expression in cancer would be useful for assessing COX-2-mediated effects on chemoprevention and radiosensitization using COX-2 inhibitors as an emerging class of anti-cancer drugs, especially for colorectal cancer. Herein, we describe the radiopharmacological analysis of [¹⁸F]Pyricoxib, a novel radiolabeled COX-2 inhibitor, for specific PET imaging of COX-2 in colorectal cancer.

Methods

Uptake of [¹⁸F]Pyricoxib was assessed in human colorectal cancer cell lines HCA-7 (COX-2 positive) and HCT-116 (COX-2 negative). Standard COX-2 inhibitors were used to test for specificity of [¹⁸F]Pyricoxib for COX-2 binding in vitro and in vivo. PET imaging, biodistribution, and radiometabolite analyses were included into radiopharmacological evaluation of [¹⁸F]Pyricoxib.

Results

Radiotracer uptake in COX-2 positive HCA-7 cells was significantly higher than in COX-2 negative HCT-116 cells (P < 0.05). COX-2 inhibitors, celecoxib, rofecoxib, and SC58125, blocked uptake of [¹⁸F]Pyricoxib in HCA-7 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. The radiotracer was slowly metabolized in mice, with approximately 60 % of intact compound after 2 h post-injection. Selective COX-2-mediated tumor uptake of [¹⁸F]Pyricoxib in HCA-7 xenografts was confirmed in vivo. Celecoxib (100 mg/kg) selectively blocked tumor uptake by 16 % (PET image analysis; P < 0.05) and by 51 % (biodistribution studies; P < 0.01).

Conclusions

The novel PET radiotracer [¹⁸F]Pyricoxib displays a promising radiopharmacological profile to study COX-2 expression in cancer in vivo.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13550-016-0192-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Overview of Antagonists Used for Determining the Mechanisms of Action Employed by Potential Vasodilators with Their Suggested Signaling Pathways

This paper is a review on the types of antagonists and the signaling mechanism pathways that have been used to determine the mechanisms of action employed for vasodilation by test compounds. Thus, we exhaustively reviewed and analyzed reports related to this topic published in PubMed between the years of 2010 till 2015. The aim of this paperis to suggest the most appropriate type of antagonists that correspond to receptors that would be involved during the mechanistic studies, as well as the latest signaling pathways trends that are being studied in order to determine the route(s) that atest compound employs for inducing vasodilation. The methods to perform the mechanism studies were included. Fundamentally, the affinity, specificity and selectivity of the antagonists to their receptors or enzymes were clearly elaborated as well as the solubility and reversibility. All the signaling pathways on the mechanisms of action involved in the vascular tone regulation have been well described in previous review articles. However, the most appropriate antagonists that should be utilized have never been suggested and elaborated before, hence the reason for this review.

Isoindoline Derivatives of α-Amino Acids as Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 Inhibitors

IC50 values were obtained for two series of isoindolines derived from α-amino acids over cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1 and COX-2). In order to explain the biological activity observed, a structure-activity relationship (SAR) model was achieved for the tested compounds and 19 reference compounds with known selective inhibitory activity, through the correlation of the binding energies calculated from rigid docking of the best conformations into the catalytic sites of COX-1 and COX-2, as well as their molecular descriptors: Log P, molecular weight (MW), volume (V), and solvation energy (Esol) versus their experimental IC50 values by MLR and LS-SVM methods. The model probed whether the COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitory activities of the isoindolines correlate with steric, hydrophobic, and thermodynamic parameters. The correlation values with MLR for COX-1 and COX-2 (r(2)  = 0.4193 and r(2)  = 0.5929) were optimized with LS-SVM until r(2)  = 0.6818 for COX-1 and r(2)  = 0.8985 for COX-2, resulting in a good predictive ability for COX-1 and -2 inhibition with this model. In conclusion, the data suggests that the physicochemical descriptors evaluated have an impact on the inhibitory activity and selectivity of isoindolines over COX-1 and COX-2.

Increasing levels of the endocannabinoid 2-AG is neuroprotective in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine mouse model of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common chronic neurodegenerative disorder, usually of idiopathic origin. Symptoms including tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity and postural instability are caused by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal region of the brain. Symptomatic therapies are available but no treatment slows or prevents the loss of neurons. Neuroinflammation has been implicated in its pathogenesis. To this end, the present study utilises the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) neurotoxin to reproduce the pattern of cell death evident in PD patients. Herein, the role of a potential regulator of an immune response, the endocannabinoid system (ECS), is investigated. The most prevalent endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) (3 and 5 mg/kg), was added exogenously and its enzymatic degradation inhibited to provide protection against MPTP-induced cell death. Furthermore, the addition of DFU (25 mg/kg), a selective inhibitor of inflammatory mediator cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), potentiated these effects. Levels of 2-AG were shown to be upregulated in a time- and region-specific manner following MPTP administration, indicating that the ECS represents a natural defence mechanism against inflammation, potentiation of which could provide therapeutic benefits. The results expand the current understanding of the role that this signalling system has and its potential influence in PD.

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We investigate the role of 2-AG in a model of Parkinson's disease.

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2-AG and inhibition of its metabolism by JZL184 protected against MPTP toxicity.

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A combination of JZL184 with a COX-2 inhibitor increased the effect.

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Manipulation of endocannabinoid levels might be useful for Parkinson's disease.

Bacterial and algal orthologs of prostaglandin H₂synthase: novel insights into the evolution of an integral membrane protein

Prostaglandin H₂synthase (PGHS; EC 1.14.99.1), a bi-functional heme enzyme that contains cyclooxygenase and peroxidase activities, plays a central role in the inflammatory response, pain, and blood clotting in higher eukaryotes. In this review, we discuss the progenitors of the mammalian enzyme by using modern bioinformatics and homology modeling to draw comparisons between this well-studied system and its orthologs from algae and bacterial sources. A clade of bacterial and algal orthologs is described that have salient structural features distinct from eukaryotic counterparts, including the lack of a dimerization and EGF-like domains, the absence of gene duplicates, and minimal membrane-binding domains. The functional implications of shared and variant features are discussed.

Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition partially protects against 60% O2 -mediated lung injury in neonatal rats

RATIONALE

Use of the anti-inflammatory agent dexamethasone in premature infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia has been curtailed, and no alternative anti-inflammatory agents are approved for this use. Our objective was to use a neonatal rat model of bronchopulmonary dysplasia to determine if an highly selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, 5,5-dimethyl-3-(3-fluorophenyl)4-(4-methylsulfonyl)phenyl-2(5H)-furanone (DFU; 10 µg/g body weight), could prevent inflammatory cell influx and protect against lung injury.

METHODS

Neonatal rats exposed to air or 60% O2 for 14 days from birth either received daily i.p. injections of (i) vehicle or DFU or (ii) vehicle or an EP(1) receptor antagonist, SC-19220.

RESULTS

DFU attenuated the lung macrophage and neutrophil influx, prevented interstitial thickening and prevented the loss of peripheral blood vessels induced by 60% O2 , but did not protect against the variance in alveolar diameter induced by 60% O2 . Exposure to 60% O2 caused both an increase in lung prostaglandin E2 content and a reduction in lung mesenchymal cell mass which was reversed by DFU. Prostaglandin E2 binding to the EP(1) receptor inhibited DNA synthesis in cultures of lung fibroblasts in a dose dependent fashion. Treatment with SC-19220 attenuated the reduction in lung mesenchymal mass observed following exposure of rat pups to 60% O2 .

CONCLUSIONS

An highly selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor is an effective anti-inflammatory substitute for dexamethasone for preventing phagocyte influx into the neonatal lung during 60% O2 -mediated lung injury, and can modify the severity of that injury.

Role of cyclooxygenase isoforms in the altered excitatory motor pathways of human colon with diverticular disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The COX isoforms (COX-1, COX-2) regulate human gut motility, although their role under pathological conditions remains unclear. This study examines the effects of COX inhibitors on excitatory motility in colonic tissue from patients with diverticular disease (DD).

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Longitudinal muscle preparations, from patients with DD or uncomplicated cancer (controls), were set up in organ baths and connected to isotonic transducers. Indomethacin (COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor), SC-560 (COX-1 inhibitor) or DFU (COX-2 inhibitor) were assayed on electrically evoked, neurogenic, cholinergic and tachykininergic contractions, or carbachol- and substance P (SP)-induced myogenic contractions. Distribution and expression of COX isoforms in the neuromuscular compartment were assessed by RT-PCR, Western blot and immunohistochemical analysis.

KEY RESULTS

In control preparations, neurogenic cholinergic contractions were enhanced by COX inhibitors, whereas tachykininergic responses were blunted. Carbachol-evoked contractions were increased by indomethacin or SC-560, but not DFU, whereas all inhibitors reduced SP-induced motor responses. In preparations from DD patients, COX inhibitors did not affect electrically evoked cholinergic contractions. Both indomethacin and DFU, but not SC-560, decreased tachykininergic responses. COX inhibitors did not modify carbachol-evoked motor responses, whereas they counteracted SP-induced contractions. COX-1 expression was decreased in myenteric neurons, whereas COX-2 was enhanced in glial cells and smooth muscle.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

In control colon, COX-1 and COX-2 down-regulate cholinergic motility, whereas both isoforms enhance tachykininergic motor activity. In the presence of DD, there is a loss of modulation by both COX isoforms on the cholinergic system, whereas COX-2 displays an enhanced facilitatory control on tachykininergic contractile activity.

Assessment of common nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications by whole blood aggregometry: a clinical evaluation for the perioperative setting

OBJECTIVE

To help define the perioperative risk related to commonly used non-aspirin NSAIDs with whole blood platelet aggregometry.

METHODS

Twelve healthy volunteers were recruited. Two cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 inhibitors (ibuprofen and naproxen) and two COX-2 inhibitors (meloxicam and celecoxib) were administered, and daily whole blood platelet aggregometry studies were obtained until studies showed no platelet inhibition. Aspirin was studied at the conclusion of the study.

RESULTS

Ibuprofen had no inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation in all women and no inhibitory effect in 83% of men at 24 hours. All platelet function had returned to normal at 48 hours. The inhibitory effect of naproxen on platelets was absent at 48 hours in 83% of the women and 50% of men. By 72 hours all platelet studies had returned to normal. Meloxicam and celecoxib did not cause any overall inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation.

CONCLUSIONS

Ibuprofen and naproxen have a mild inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation compared with aspirin and this effect is undetectable by 48 hours and 72 hours, respectively. Meloxicam and celecoxib show essentially no inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation. These findings suggest that there is little bleeding risk related to platelet aggregation at 24 hours in patients who take COX-2 inhibitors and at 72 hours for those who take COX-1 inhibitor medications.

Design, synthesis and structure-activity relationship studies of novel and diverse cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors as anti-inflammatory drugs

Because of the pivotal role of cyclooxygenase (COX) in the inflammatory processes, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that suppress COX activities have been used clinically for the treatment of inflammatory diseases/syndromes; however, traditional NSAIDs exhibit serious side-effects such as gastrointestinal damage and hyper sensitivity owing to their COX-1 inhibition. Also, COX-2 inhibition-derived suppressive or preventive effects against initiation/proliferation/invasion/motility/recurrence/metastasis of various cancers/tumours such as colon, gastric, skin, lung, liver, pancreas, breast, prostate, cervical and ovarian cancers are significant. In this study, design, synthesis and structure-activity relationship (SAR) of various novel {2-[(2-, 3- and/or 4-substituted)-benzoyl, (bicyclic heterocycloalkanophenyl)carbonyl or cycloalkanecarbonyl]-(5- or 6-substituted)-1H-indol-3-yl}acetic acid analogues were investigated to seek and identify various chemotypes of potent and selective COX-2 inhibitors for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, resulting in the discovery of orally potent agents in the peripheral-inflammation model rats. The SARs and physicochemical properties for the analogues are described as significant findings. For graphical abstract: see Supplementary Material. ( www.informahealthcare.com/enz ).

Drug/drug interaction of common NSAIDs with antiplatelet effect of aspirin in human platelets

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may interfere with the anti-platelet activity of aspirin at the level of the platelet cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) enzyme. In order to examine the interference of common NSAIDs with the anti-platelet activity of aspirin the human platelet rich plasma from voluntary donors was used for arachidonic acid-induced aggregation and determination of thromboxane synthesis. Further, docking studies were used to explain the molecular basis of the NSAID/aspirin interaction. The experimental results showed that celecoxib, dipyrone (active metabolite), ibuprofen, flufenamic acid, naproxen, nimesulide, oxaprozin, and piroxicam significantly interfere with the anti-platelet activity of aspirin, while diclofenac, ketorolac and acetaminophen do not. Docking studies suggested that NSAIDs forming hydrogen bonds with Ser530, Arg120, Tyr385 and other amino acids of the COX-1 hydrophobic channel interfere with antiplatelet activity of aspirin while non interfering NSAIDs do not form relevant hydrogen bond interactions within the aspirin binding site. In conclusion, docking analysis of NSAID interactions at the COX-1 active site appears useful to predict their interference with the anti-platelet activity of aspirin. The results, demonstrate that some NSAIDs do not interfere with the antiplatelet action of aspirin while many others do and provide a basis for understanding the observed differences among individual non-aspirin NSAIDs.

Development of potent and selective indomethacin analogues for the inhibition of AKR1C3 (Type 5 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/prostaglandin F synthase) in castrate-resistant prostate cancer

Castrate-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is a fatal, metastatic form of prostate cancer. CRPC is characterized by reactivation of the androgen axis due to changes in androgen receptor signaling and/or adaptive intratumoral androgen biosynthesis. AKR1C3 is upregulated in CRPC where it catalyzes the formation of potent androgens. This makes AKR1C3 a target for the treatment of CRPC. AKR1C3 inhibitors should not inhibit AKR1C1/AKR1C2, which inactivate 5α-dihydrotestosterone. Indomethacin, used to inhibit cyclooxygenase, also inhibits AKR1C3 and displays selectivity over AKR1C1/AKR1C2. Parallel synthetic strategies were used to generate libraries of indomethacin analogues, which exhibit reduced cyclooxygenase inhibitory activity but retain AKR1C3 inhibitory potency and selectivity. The lead compounds inhibited AKR1C3 with nanomolar potency, displayed >100-fold selectivity over AKR1C1/AKR1C2, and blocked testosterone formation in LNCaP-AKR1C3 cells. The AKR1C3·NADP(+)·2'-des-methyl-indomethacin crystal structure was determined, and it revealed a unique inhibitor binding mode. The compounds reported are promising agents for the development of therapeutics for CRPC.

Current perspectives in NSAID-induced gastropathy

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the most highly prescribed drugs in the world. Their analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic actions may be beneficial; however, they are associated with severe side effects including gastrointestinal injury and peptic ulceration. Though several approaches for limiting these side effects have been adopted, like the use of COX-2 specific drugs, comedication of acid suppressants like proton pump inhibitors and prostaglandin analogs, these alternatives have limitations in terms of efficacy and side effects. In this paper, the mechanism of action of NSAIDs and their critical gastrointestinal complications have been reviewed. This paper also provides the information on different preventive measures prescribed to minimize such adverse effects and analyses the new suggested strategies for development of novel drugs to maintain the anti-inflammatory functions of NSAIDs along with effective gastrointestinal protection.

Selective and non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitors delay stress fracture healing in the rat ulna

Anti-inflammatory drugs are widely used to manage pain associated with stress fractures (SFxs), but little is known about their effects on healing of those injuries. We hypothesized that selective and non-selective anti-inflammatory treatments would retard the healing of SFx in the rat ulna. SFxs were created by cyclic loading of the ulna in Wistar rats. Ulnae were harvested 2, 4 or 6 weeks following loading. Rats were treated with non-selective NSAID, ibuprofen (30 mg/kg/day); selective COX-2 inhibition, [5,5-dimethyl-3-3 (3 fluorophenyl)-4-(4 methylsulfonal) phenyl-2 (5H)-furanone] (DFU) (2.0 mg/kg/day); or the novel c5a anatagonist PMX53 (10 mg/kg/day, 4 and 6 weeks only); with appropriate vehicle as control. Quantitative histomorphometric measurements of SFx healing were undertaken. Treatment with the selective COX-2 inhibitor, DFU, reduced the area of resorption along the fracture line at 2 weeks, without affecting bone formation at later stages. Treatment with the non-selective, NSAID, ibuprofen decreased both bone resorption and bone formation so that there was significantly reduced length and area of remodeling and lamellar bone formation within the remodeling unit at 6 weeks after fracture. The C5a receptor antagonist PMX53 had no effect on SFx healing at 4 or 6 weeks after loading, suggesting that PMX53 would not delay SFx healing. Both selective COX-2 inhibitors and non-selective NSAIDs have the potential to compromise SFx healing, and should be used with caution when SFx is diagnosed or suspected.

Perioperative administration of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors for postoperative pain management in patients after total knee arthroplasty

Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is associated with considerable postoperative pain. The relative analgesic efficacy and adverse effect profile of perioperative use of selective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors for patients undergoing TKA are unclear. This is a systematic review and meta-analysis of all randomized controlled trials evaluating perioperative administration of COX-2 inhibitors for TKA. Eight studies that had enrolled a total of 571 patients were identified. There was a statistical significance in postoperative pain scores (0-24 hours: P = .0007, 24-48 hours: P = .01, 48-72 hours: P < .0001), opioid consumption (P = .006), active range of motion (P = .002), itching (P = .005), and postoperative nausea/vomiting (P = .003) between groups. There was no difference in blood loss during the first 24 hours after operation between groups. The efficacy of perioperative administration of selective COX-2 inhibitors to reduce postoperative pain and opioid consumption after TKA is validated. Furthermore, it has important outcome benefits after TKA.

Effect of celecoxib on cyclooxygenase-1-mediated prostacyclin synthesis and endothelium-dependent contraction in mouse arteries

This study aimed to determine whether a cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor celecoxib influences endothelium-dependent contraction independent of its action on COX-2 and, if so, the underlying mechanism(s). Abdominal aortas and/or carotid arteries from C57BL/6 mice or those with genetic COX-2 deficiency (COX-2(-/-)) were isolated for functional and/or biochemical analyses. Result showed that following NO synthase inhibition celecoxib not only reduced the contraction evoked by acetylcholine in C57BL/6 abdominal aorta, but also that in COX-2 (-/-) mice showing a comparable magnitude. Notably, the IC(50) of celecoxib obtained in COX-2 (-/-) abdominal aorta was only ~0.364 μM. Also, celecoxib exhibited a similar effect on COX-2 (-/-) carotid arteries. Interestingly, celecoxib was not only found to inhibit the production of the prostacyclin (PGI(2)) metabolite 6-keto-PGF (1α) in COX-2 (-/-) aortas, but also caused a reduction in the contraction evoked by PGI(2), by the α(1)-adrenergic agonist phenylephrine, or by 30 mM K(+)-induced depolarization in COX-2 (-/-) and/or C57BL/6 abdominal aorta. Moreover, N-[2-(cyclohexyloxy)-4-nitrophenyl]-methanesulfonamide (NS398), another COX-2 inhibitor, also reduced the contraction evoked by acetylcholine or by 30 mM K(+)-induced depolarization in COX-2 (-/-) mice. These results demonstrate explicitly that in mouse arteries celecoxib not only inhibits COX-1-mediated synthesis of PGI(2) and probably some other prostanoids, but also causes a reduction in vessel contractility that is independent of either COX-2 or COX-1, leading to an inhibition of COX-1-mediated endothelium-dependent contraction with an IC(50) value far below that of it considered for COX-1 . Also, our data suggest that such effects of celecoxib could be possibly shared by some other COX-2 inhibitors, such as NS398.

Facile oxidative rearrangements using hypervalent iodine reagents

Aromatic substituents migrate in a novel oxidative cyclization mediated by iodine(III) reagents. 4-Arylbut-3-enoic acids are cyclized and rearranged to 4-arylfuran-2(5H)-ones by hypervalent iodine compounds in good to excellent yields under mild reaction conditions. Other ring sizes are also accessible. The mechanism of the reaction is described in detail, and calculations highlight the cationic nature of the intermediates in the rearrangement. The fast access to heavily substituted furanones is used for the synthesis of biologically active derivatives.

Indomethacin-induced translocation of bacteria across enteric epithelia is reactive oxygen species-dependent and reduced by vitamin C

The enteric epithelium must absorb nutrients and water and act as a barrier to the entry of luminal material into the body; this barrier function is a key component of innate immunity. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-induced enteropathy occurs via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis and perturbed epithelial mitochondrial activity. Here, the direct effect of NSAIDs [indomethacin, piroxicam (cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 inhibitors), and SC-560 (a cyclooxygenase 1 inhibitor)] on the barrier function of human T84 epithelial cell line monolayers was assessed by transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and internalization and translocation of a commensal Escherichia coli. Exposure to E. coli in the presence and absence of drugs for 16 h reduced TER; however, monolayers cotreated with E. coli and indomethacin, but not piroxicam or SC-560, displayed significant increases in internalization and translocation of the bacteria. This was accompanied by increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which was also increased in epithelia treated with E. coli only. Colocalization revealed upregulation of superoxide synthesis by mitochondria in epithelia treated with E. coli + indomethacin. Addition of antioxidants (vitamin C or a green tea polyphenol, epigallocathechin gallate) quenched the ROS and prevented the increase in E. coli internalization and translocation evoked by indomethacin, but not the drop in TER. Evidence of increased apoptosis was not observed in this model. The data implicate epithelial-derived ROS in indomethacin-induced barrier dysfunction and show that a portion of the bacteria likely cross the epithelium via a transcellular pathway. We speculate that addition of antioxidants as dietary supplements to NSAID treatment regimens would reduce the magnitude of decreased barrier function, specifically the transepithelial passage of bacteria.

Bioactivity-guided isolation of ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate, an anti-inflammatory constituent, from Kaempferia galanga L. extracts

This study evaluated the anti-inflammatory effect of Kaempferia galanga (KG) using an activity-guided approach. KG rhizomes were serially extracted with petroleum ether, chloroform, methanol and water. These extracts (2 g/kg each) were tested for their ability to inhibit carrageenan-induced rat paw edema. The chloroform extract was found to exert the highest inhibition (42.9%) compared to control (p < 0.001), hence it was further fractionated by washing serially with hexane, hexane-chloroform (1:1) and chloroform. The chloroform fraction (1 g/kg) showed the highest inhibitory effect (51.9%, p < 0.001) on carrageenan-induced edema. This chloroform fraction was further fractionated with hexane-chloroform (1:3) and chloroform, and of the two fractions, the hexane-chloroform sub-fraction was the most effective in inhibiting edema (53.7%, p < 0.001). GC-MS analysis of the active sub-fraction identified ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate (EPMC) as the major component, which was re-crystallized. EPMC dose-dependently inhibited carrageenan-induced edema with an MIC of 100 mg/kg. Moreover, in an in vitro study, EPMC non-selectively inhibited the activities of cyclooxygenases 1 and 2, with IC₅₀ values of 1.12 µM and 0.83 µM respectively. These results validate the anti-inflammatory activity of KG which may be exerted by the inhibition of cyclooxygenases 1 and 2. EPMC isolated from this plant may be the active anti-inflammatory agent.

P2X receptor antagonists for pain management: examination of binding and physicochemical properties

Enhanced sensitivity to noxious stimuli and the perception of non-noxious stimuli as painful are hallmark sensory perturbations associated with chronic pain. It is now appreciated that ATP, through its actions as an excitatory neurotransmitter, plays a prominent role in the initiation and maintenance of chronic pain states. Mechanistically, the ability of ATP to drive nociceptive sensitivity is mediated through direct interactions at neuronal P2X3 and P2X2/3 receptors. Extracellular ATP also activates P2X4, P2X7, and several P2Y receptors on glial cells within the spinal cord, which leads to a heightened state of neural-glial cell interaction in ongoing pain states. Following the molecular identification of the P2 receptor superfamilies, selective small molecule antagonists for several P2 receptor subtypes were identified, which have been useful for investigating the role of specific P2X receptors in preclinical chronic pain models. More recently, several P2X receptor antagonists have advanced into clinical trials for inflammation and pain. The development of orally bioavailable blockers for ion channels, including the P2X receptors, has been traditionally difficult due to the necessity of combining requirements for target potency and selectivity with suitable absorption distribution, metabolism, and elimination properties. Recent studies on the physicochemical properties of marketed orally bioavailable drugs, have identified several parameters that appear critical for increasing the probability of achieving suitable bioavailability, central nervous system exposure, and acceptable safety necessary for clinical efficacy. This review provides an overview of the antinociceptive pharmacology of P2X receptor antagonists and the chemical diversity and drug-like properties for emerging antagonists of P2X3, P2X2/3, P2X4, and P2X7 receptors.

Spherical harmonics coefficients for ligand-based virtual screening of cyclooxygenase inhibitors

BACKGROUND

Molecular descriptors are essential for many applications in computational chemistry, such as ligand-based similarity searching. Spherical harmonics have previously been suggested as comprehensive descriptors of molecular structure and properties. We investigate a spherical harmonics descriptor for shape-based virtual screening.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We introduce and validate a partially rotation-invariant three-dimensional molecular shape descriptor based on the norm of spherical harmonics expansion coefficients. Using this molecular representation, we parameterize molecular surfaces, i.e., isosurfaces of spatial molecular property distributions. We validate the shape descriptor in a comprehensive retrospective virtual screening experiment. In a prospective study, we virtually screen a large compound library for cyclooxygenase inhibitors, using a self-organizing map as a pre-filter and the shape descriptor for candidate prioritization.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

12 compounds were tested in vitro for direct enzyme inhibition and in a whole blood assay. Active compounds containing a triazole scaffold were identified as direct cyclooxygenase-1 inhibitors. This outcome corroborates the usefulness of spherical harmonics for representation of molecular shape in virtual screening of large compound collections. The combination of pharmacophore and shape-based filtering of screening candidates proved to be a straightforward approach to finding novel bioactive chemotypes with minimal experimental effort.

MPP(+)-induced toxicity in the presence of dopamine is mediated by COX-2 through oxidative stress

Accumulating evidence suggests that endogenous dopamine may act as a neurotoxin and thereby participate in the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of PD due to its ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). Inhibition of COX-2 leads to neuroprotection by preventing the formation of dopamine-quinone. In this study, we examined whether dopamine mediates 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺)-induced toxicity in primary ventral mesencephalic (VM) neurons, an in vitro model of PD, and if so, whether the protective effects of COX-2 inhibitors on dopamine mediated MPP⁺-induced VM neurotoxicity and VM dopaminergic cell apoptosis result from the reduction of ROS. Reserpine, a dopamine-depleting agent, significantly reduced VM neurotoxicity induced by MPP⁺, whereas dopamine had an additive effect on MPP⁺-induced VM neurotoxicity and VM dopaminergic cell apoptosis. However, inhibition of COX-2 by a selective COX-2 inhibitor (DFU) or ibuprofen significantly attenuated MPP⁺-induced VM cell toxicity and VM dopaminergic cell apoptosis, which was accompanied by a decrease in ROS production in VM dopaminergic neurons. These results suggest that dopamine itself mediates MPP⁺-induced VM neurotoxicity and VM dopaminergic cell apoptosis in the presence of COX-2.

Inhibition of untransformed prostaglandin H(2) production and stretch-induced contraction of rabbit pulmonary arteries by indoxam, a selective secretory phospholipase A(2) inhibitor

Involvement of secretory phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)) in the stretch-induced production of untransformed prostaglandin H(2) (PGH(2)) in the endothelium of rabbit pulmonary arteries was investigated. The stretch-induced contraction was significantly inhibited by indoxam, a selective inhibitor for sPLA(2), and NS-398, a selective inhibitor for cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Indoxam inhibited the RGD-sensitive-integrin-independent production of untransformed PGH(2), but did not affect the RGD-sensitive-integrin-dependent production of thromboxane A(2) (TXA(2)). These results suggest that the stretch-induced contraction and untransformed PGH(2) production was mediated by sPLA(2)-COX-2 pathway, making it a new possible target for pharmacological intervention of pulmonary artery contractility.