Replicating retroviral vectors mediating continuous production and secretion of therapeutic gene products from cancer cells

Influence of vector design and host cell on the mechanism of recombination and emergence of mutant subpopulations of replicating retroviral vectors

Background

The recent advent of murine leukaemia virus (MLV)-based replication-competent retroviral (RCR) vector technology has provided exciting new tools for gene delivery, albeit the advances in vector efficiency which have been realized are also accompanied by a set of fresh challenges. The expression of additional transgene sequences, for example, increases the length of the viral genome, which can lead to reductions in replication efficiency and in turn to vector genome instability. This necessitates efforts to analyse the rate and mechanism of recombinant emergence during the replication of such vectors to provide data which should contribute to improvements in RCR vector design.

Results

In this study, we have performed detailed molecular analyses on packaged vector genomes and proviral DNA following propagation of MLV-based RCR vectors both in cell culture and in pre-formed subcutaneous tumours in vivo. The effects of strain of MLV, transgene position and host cell type on the rate of emergence of vector recombinants were quantitatively analysed by applying real-time PCR and real-time RT-PCR assays. Individual mutants were further characterized by PCR, and nucleotide sequence and structural motifs associated with these mutants were determined by sequencing. Our data indicate that virus strain, vector design and host cell influence the rate of emergence of predominating vector mutants, but not the underlying recombination mechanisms in vitro. In contrast, however, differences in the RNA secondary structural motifs associated with sequenced mutants emerging in cell culture and in solid tumours in vivo were observed.

Conclusion

Our data provide further evidence that MLV-based RCR vectors based on the Moloney strain of MLV and containing the transgene cassette in the 3' UTR region are superior to those based on Akv-MLV and/or containing the transgene cassette in the U3 region of the LTR. The observed discrepancies between the data obtained in solid tumours in vivo and our own and previously published data from infected cells in vitro demonstrates the importance of evaluating vectors designed for use in cancer gene therapy in vivo as well as in vitro.

Cell entry targeting restricts biodistribution of replication-competent retroviruses to tumour tissue

Virotherapy is currently being developed for many different types of viruses including replication-competent murine leukaemia virus (MLV) as a novel tool in cancer therapy. However, there is the risk of insertional mutagenesis associated with this virus, making careful preclinical studies necessary before its first application in man. We have previously generated conditionally replication-competent MLV variants that require activation by tumour-associated proteases to become infectious. Here we analysed in a comparative study the spreading of non-targeted and of such tumour-targeted MLV variants to tumour and extratumoural organs in immunodeficient mice. Both virus types were able to efficiently infect tumour cells after systemic administration. The non-targeted virus, however, also infected extratumoural organs like bone marrow, spleen and liver efficiently. In contrast, the targeted viruses revealed in a quantitative analysis of virus spreading an up to 500-fold more selective infection of tumour tissue than the non-targeted virus. The data raise serious doubts about a safe clinical use of non-targeted MLV. Engineering the virus to become activatable by tumour-associated proteases can significantly improve the safety of MLV.

Effects of viral strain, transgene position, and target cell type on replication kinetics, genomic stability, and transgene expression of replication-competent murine leukemia virus-based vectors

The limited efficiency of in vivo gene transfer by replication-deficient retroviral vectors remains an obstacle to achieving effective gene therapy for solid tumors. One approach to circumvent this problem is the use of replication-competent retroviral vectors. However, the application of such vectors is at a comparatively early stage and the effects which virus strain, transgene cassette position, and target cell can exert on vector spread kinetics, genomic stability, and transgene expression levels remain to be fully elucidated. Thus, in this study a panel of vectors allowing the investigation of different design features on an otherwise genetically identical background were analyzed with respect to these readout parameters in cultures of both murine and human cells and in preformed tumors in nude mice. The obtained data revealed that (i) Moloney murine leukemia virus (Mo-MLV)-based vectors spread with faster kinetics, drive higher levels of transgene expression, and are more stable than equivalent Akv-MLV-based vectors; (ii) vectors containing the transgene cassette directly downstream of the envelope gene are genomically more stable than those containing it within the 3'-long terminal repeat U3 region; and (iii) the genomic stability of both strains seems to be cell line dependent.

Tissue- and tumor-specific targeting of murine leukemia virus-based replication-competent retroviral vectors

Replication-competent retrovirus vectors based on murine leukemia virus (MLV) have been shown to effectively transfer therapeutic genes over multiple serial infections in cell culture and through solid tumors in vivo with a high degree of genomic stability. While simple retroviruses possess a natural tumor selectivity in that they can transduce only actively dividing cells, additional tumor-targeting strategies would nevertheless be advantageous, since tumor cells are not the only actively dividing cells. In this study, we used the promiscuous murine cytomegalovirus promoter, a chimeric regulatory sequence consisting of the hepatitis B virus enhancer II and the human alpha1-antitrypsin (EII-Pa1AT) promoter, and a synthetic regulatory sequence consisting of a series of T-cell factor binding sites named the CTP4 promoter to generate replicating MLV vectors, whereby the last two are transcriptionally restricted to liver- and beta-catenin/T-cell factor-deregulated cells, respectively. When the heterologous promoters were used to replace almost the entire MLV U3 region, including the MLV TATA box, vector replication was inefficient since nascent virus particle production from infected cells was greatly decreased. Fusion of the heterologous promoters lacking the TATA box to the MLV TATA box, however, generated vectors which replicated with almost-wild-type kinetics throughout permissive cells while exhibiting low or negligible spread in nonpermissive cells. The genomic stability of the vectors was shown to be comparable to that of a similar vector containing wild-type MLV long terminal repeats, and tropism analysis over repeated infection cycles showed that the targeted vectors retained their original specificity.

Chronic gene delivery of interferon-inducible protein 10 through replication-competent retrovirus vectors suppresses tumor growth

Sustained maintenance of therapeutic levels of angiostatic proteins in tumor tissues continues to represent a major challenge to antiangiogenesis therapy of cancer. In this study, we tested the hypothesis of utilizing gene transfer via replication-competent retroviral (RCR) vectors for chronic protein delivery. We now show that bioactive human interferon-inducible protein-10 (IP10) can be secreted from a variety of mammalian cells upon transduction with RCR vectors carrying the human IP10 gene. The production of IP10 from RCR-transduced cells could be maintained for at least three months in culture. The level and duration of IP10 expression in vivo was sufficient to inhibit growth of subcutaneous (s.c.) tumors as well as metastatic lesions in mice. This tumor inhibition was correlated to a marked reduction in tumor vascularization and mitotic activity. By conducting immunohistological studies, we have been able to show that IP10 vector-affected tumors evidenced elevated levels of IL-12p35 mRNA, with no sign of changes in the local inflammatory response, however, as determined by macrophage infiltration and the expression of proinflammatory cytokines. We are addressing the feasibility of using RCR vector-based gene therapy as a more convenient alternative tool to chronically deliver antiangiogenic proteins for cancer therapy.