Region 1.2 of the RNA polymerase sigma subunit controls recognition of the -10 promoter element

Structural Insight into the Mechanism of σ32-Mediated Transcription Initiation of Bacterial RNA Polymerase

Bacterial RNA polymerases (RNAP) form distinct holoenzymes with different σ factors to initiate diverse gene expression programs. In this study, we report a cryo-EM structure at 2.49 Å of RNA polymerase transcription complex containing a temperature-sensitive bacterial σ factor, σ³² (σ³²-RPo). The structure of σ³²-RPo reveals key interactions essential for the assembly of E. coli σ³²-RNAP holoenzyme and for promoter recognition and unwinding by σ³². Specifically, a weak interaction between σ³² and -35/-10 spacer is mediated by T128 and K130 in σ³². A histidine in σ³², rather than a tryptophan in σ⁷⁰, acts as a wedge to separate the base pair at the upstream junction of the transcription bubble, highlighting the differential promoter-melting capability of different residue combinations. Structure superimposition revealed relatively different orientations between βFTH and σ₄ from other σ-engaged RNAPs and biochemical data suggest that a biased σ₄-βFTH configuration may be adopted to modulate binding affinity to promoter so as to orchestrate the recognition and regulation of different promoters. Collectively, these unique structural features advance our understanding of the mechanism of transcription initiation mediated by different σ factors.

Clamp Interactions with +3/+6 Duplex and Upstream-to-Downstream Allosteric Effects in Late Steps of Forming a Stable RNA Polymerase-Promoter Open Complex

Stable 37 °C open complexes (OC) of E. coli RNA polymerase (RNAP) at λP_R and T7A1 promoters form at similar rates but have very different lifetimes. To understand the downstream interactions responsible for OC lifetime, how promoter sequence directs them and when they form, we report lifetimes of stable OC and unstable late (I₂) intermediates for promoters with different combinations of λP_R (L) and T7A1 (T) discriminators, core promoters and UP elements. I₂ lifetimes are similarly short, while stable OC lifetimes differ greatly, determined largely by the discriminator and modulated by core-promoter and UP elements. The free energy change ΔG₃^o for I₂ → stable OC is approximately -4 kcal more favorable for L-discriminator than for T-discriminator promoters. Downstream-truncation at +6 (DT+6) greatly destabilizes OC at L-discriminator but not T-discriminator promoters, making all ΔG₃^o values similar (approximately -4 kcal). Urea reduces OC lifetime greatly by affecting ΔG₃^o. We deduce that urea acts by disfavoring coupled folding of key elements of the β'-clamp, that I₂ is an open-clamp OC, and that clamp-closing in I₂ → stable OC involves coupled folding. Differences in ΔG₃^o between downstream-truncated and full-length promoters yield contributions to ΔG₃^o from interactions with downstream mobile elements (DME) including β-lobe and β'-jaw, more favorable for L-discriminator than for T-discriminator promoters. We deduce how competition between far-downstream DNA and σ⁷⁰ region 1.1 affects ΔG₃^o values. We discuss variant-specific ΔG₃^o contributions in terms of the allosteric network by which differences in discriminator and -10 sequence are sensed and transmitted downstream to affect DME-duplex interactions in I₂ → stable OC.

Structural origins of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase open promoter complex stability

The first step in gene expression in all organisms requires opening the DNA duplex to expose one strand for templated RNA synthesis. In Escherichia coli, promoter DNA sequence fundamentally determines how fast the RNA polymerase (RNAP) forms "open" complexes (RPo), whether RPo persists for seconds or hours, and how quickly RNAP transitions from initiation to elongation. These rates control promoter strength in vivo, but their structural origins remain largely unknown. Here, we use cryoelectron microscopy to determine the structures of RPo formed de novo at three promoters with widely differing lifetimes at 37 °C: λP_R (t_1/2 ∼10 h), T7A1 (t_1/2 ∼4 min), and a point mutant in λP_R (λP_R-5C) (t_1/2 ∼2 h). Two distinct RPo conformers are populated at λP_R, likely representing productive and unproductive forms of RPo observed in solution studies. We find that changes in the sequence and length of DNA in the transcription bubble just upstream of the start site (+1) globally alter the network of DNA-RNAP interactions, base stacking, and strand order in the single-stranded DNA of the transcription bubble; these differences propagate beyond the bubble to upstream and downstream DNA. After expanding the transcription bubble by one base (T7A1), the nontemplate strand "scrunches" inside the active site cleft; the template strand bulges outside the cleft at the upstream edge of the bubble. The structures illustrate how limited sequence changes trigger global alterations in the transcription bubble that modulate the RPo lifetime and affect the subsequent steps of the transcription cycle.

Extracytoplasmic Function σ Factors as Tools for Coordinating Stress Responses

The ability of bacterial core RNA polymerase (RNAP) to interact with different σ factors, thereby forming a variety of holoenzymes with different specificities, represents a powerful tool to coordinately reprogram gene expression. Extracytoplasmic function σ factors (ECFs), which are the largest and most diverse family of alternative σ factors, frequently participate in stress responses. The classification of ECFs in 157 different groups according to their phylogenetic relationships and genomic context has revealed their diversity. Here, we have clustered 55 ECF groups with experimentally studied representatives into two broad classes of stress responses. The remaining 102 groups still lack any mechanistic or functional insight, representing a myriad of systems yet to explore. In this work, we review the main features of ECFs and discuss the different mechanisms controlling their production and activity, and how they lead to a functional stress response. Finally, we focus in more detail on two well-characterized ECFs, for which the mechanisms to detect and respond to stress are complex and completely different: Escherichia coli RpoE, which is the best characterized ECF and whose structural and functional studies have provided key insights into the transcription initiation by ECF-RNAP holoenzymes, and the ECF15-type EcfG, the master regulator of the general stress response in Alphaproteobacteria.

Region 4 of the RNA polymerase σ subunit counteracts pausing during initial transcription

All cellular genetic information is transcribed into RNA by multisubunit RNA polymerases (RNAPs). The basal transcription initiation factors of cellular RNAPs stimulate the initial RNA synthesis via poorly understood mechanisms. Here, we explored the mechanism employed by the bacterial factor σ in promoter-independent initial transcription. We found that the RNAP holoenzyme lacking the promoter-binding domain σ4 is ineffective in de novo transcription initiation and displays high propensity to pausing upon extension of RNAs 3 to 7 nucleotides in length. The nucleotide at the RNA 3' end determines the pause lifetime. The σ4 domain stabilizes short RNA:DNA hybrids and suppresses pausing by stimulating RNAP active-center translocation. The antipausing activity of σ4 is modulated by its interaction with the β subunit flap domain and by the σ remodeling factors AsiA and RbpA. Our results suggest that the presence of σ4 within the RNA exit channel compensates for the intrinsic instability of short RNA:DNA hybrids by increasing RNAP processivity, thus favoring productive transcription initiation. This "RNAP boosting" activity of the initiation factor is shaped by the thermodynamics of RNA:DNA interactions and thus, should be relevant for any factor-dependent RNAP.

Ureidothiophene inhibits interaction of bacterial RNA polymerase with -10 promotor element

Bacterial RNA polymerase is a potent target for antibiotics, which utilize a plethora of different modes of action, some of which are still not fully understood. Ureidothiophene (Urd) was found in a screen of a library of chemical compounds for ability to inhibit bacterial transcription. The mechanism of Urd action is not known. Here, we show that Urd inhibits transcription at the early stage of closed complex formation by blocking interaction of RNA polymerase with the promoter -10 element, while not affecting interactions with -35 element or steps of transcription after promoter closed complex formation. We show that mutation in the region 1.2 of initiation factor σ decreases sensitivity to Urd. The results suggest that Urd may directly target σ region 1.2, which allosterically controls the recognition of -10 element by σ region 2. Alternatively, Urd may block conformational changes of the holoenzyme required for engagement with -10 promoter element, although by a mechanism distinct from that of antibiotic fidaxomycin (lipiarmycin). The results suggest a new mode of transcription inhibition involving the regulatory domain of σ subunit, and potentially pinpoint a novel target for development of new antibacterials.

The σ Subunit-Remodeling Factors: An Emerging Paradigms of Transcription Regulation

Transcription initiation is a key checkpoint and highly regulated step of gene expression. The sigma (σ) subunit of RNA polymerase (RNAP) controls all transcription initiation steps, from recognition of the -10/-35 promoter elements, upon formation of the closed promoter complex (RPc), to stabilization of the open promoter complex (RPo) and stimulation of the primary steps in RNA synthesis. The canonical mechanism to regulate σ activity upon transcription initiation relies on activators that recognize specific DNA motifs and recruit RNAP to promoters. This mini-review describes an emerging group of transcriptional regulators that form a complex with σ or/and RNAP prior to promoter binding, remodel the σ subunit conformation, and thus modify RNAP activity. Such strategy is widely used by bacteriophages to appropriate the host RNAP. Recent findings on RNAP-binding protein A (RbpA) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Crl from Escherichia coli suggest that activator-driven changes in σ conformation can be a widespread regulatory mechanism in bacteria.

Mode of Action of Kanglemycin A, an Ansamycin Natural Product that Is Active against Rifampicin-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens pose an urgent healthcare threat, prompting a demand for new medicines. We report the mode of action of the natural ansamycin antibiotic kanglemycin A (KglA). KglA binds bacterial RNA polymerase at the rifampicin-binding pocket but maintains potency against RNA polymerases containing rifampicin-resistant mutations. KglA has antibiotic activity against rifampicin-resistant Gram-positive bacteria and multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MDR-M. tuberculosis). The X-ray crystal structures of KglA with the Escherichia coli RNA polymerase holoenzyme and Thermus thermophilus RNA polymerase-promoter complex reveal an altered-compared with rifampicin-conformation of KglA within the rifampicin-binding pocket. Unique deoxysugar and succinate ansa bridge substituents make additional contacts with a separate, hydrophobic pocket of RNA polymerase and preclude the formation of initial dinucleotides, respectively. Previous ansa-chain modifications in the rifamycin series have proven unsuccessful. Thus, KglA represents a key starting point for the development of a new class of ansa-chain derivatized ansamycins to tackle rifampicin resistance.

Locking the nontemplate DNA to control transcription

Universally conserved NusG/Spt5 factors reduce RNA polymerase pausing and arrest. In a widely accepted model, these proteins bridge the RNA polymerase clamp and lobe domains across the DNA channel, inhibiting the clamp opening to promote pause-free RNA synthesis. However, recent structures of paused transcription elongation complexes show that the clamp does not open and suggest alternative mechanisms of antipausing. Among these mechanisms, direct contacts of NusG/Spt5 proteins with the nontemplate DNA in the transcription bubble have been proposed to prevent unproductive DNA conformations and thus inhibit arrest. We used Escherichia coli RfaH, whose interactions with DNA are best characterized, to test this idea. We report that RfaH stabilizes the upstream edge of the transcription bubble, favoring forward translocation, and protects the upstream duplex DNA from exonuclease cleavage. Modeling suggests that RfaH loops the nontemplate DNA around its surface and restricts the upstream DNA duplex mobility. Strikingly, we show that RfaH-induced DNA protection and antipausing activity can be mimicked by shortening the nontemplate strand in elongation complexes assembled on synthetic scaffolds. We propose that remodeling of the nontemplate DNA controls recruitment of regulatory factors and R-loop formation during transcription elongation across all life.

The universally-conserved transcription factor RfaH is recruited to a hairpin structure of the non-template DNA strand

RfaH, a transcription regulator of the universally conserved NusG/Spt5 family, utilizes a unique mode of recruitment to elongating RNA polymerase to activate virulence genes. RfaH function depends critically on an ops sequence, an exemplar of a consensus pause, in the non-template DNA strand of the transcription bubble. We used structural and functional analyses to elucidate the role of ops in RfaH recruitment. Our results demonstrate that ops induces pausing to facilitate RfaH binding and establishes direct contacts with RfaH. Strikingly, the non-template DNA forms a hairpin in the RfaH:ops complex structure, flipping out a conserved T residue that is specifically recognized by RfaH. Molecular modeling and genetic evidence support the notion that ops hairpin is required for RfaH recruitment. We argue that both the sequence and the structure of the non-template strand are read out by transcription factors, expanding the repertoire of transcriptional regulators in all domains of life.

Single-molecule analysis reveals the mechanism of transcription activation in M. tuberculosis

The σ subunit of bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP) controls recognition of the -10 and -35 promoter elements during transcription initiation. Free σ adopts a "closed," or inactive, conformation incompatible with promoter binding. The conventional two-state model of σ activation proposes that binding to core RNAP induces formation of an "open," active, σ conformation, which is optimal for promoter recognition. Using single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer, we demonstrate that vegetative-type σ subunits exist in open and closed states even after binding to the RNAP core. As an extreme case, RNAP from Mycobacterium tuberculosis preferentially retains σ in the closed conformation, which is converted to the open conformation only upon binding by the activator protein RbpA and interaction with promoter DNA. These findings reveal that the conformational dynamics of the σ subunit in the RNAP holoenzyme is a target for regulation by transcription factors and plays a critical role in promoter recognition.

Interplay between σ region 3.2 and secondary channel factors during promoter escape by bacterial RNA polymerase

In bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP), conserved region 3.2 of the σ subunit was proposed to contribute to promoter escape by interacting with the 5′-end of nascent RNA, thus facilitating σ dissociation. RNAP activity during transcription initiation can also be modulated by protein factors that bind within the secondary channel and reach the enzyme active site. To monitor the kinetics of promoter escape in real time, we used a molecular beacon assay with fluorescently labeled σ70 subunit of Escherichia coli RNAP. We show that substitutions and deletions in σ region 3.2 decrease the rate of promoter escape and lead to accumulation of inactive complexes during transcription initiation. Secondary channel factors differentially regulate this process depending on the promoter and mutations in σ region 3.2. GreA generally increase the rate of promoter escape; DksA also stimulates promoter escape on certain templates, while GreB either stimulates or inhibits this process depending on the template. When observed, the stimulation of promoter escape correlates with the accumulation of stressed transcription complexes with scrunched DNA, while changes in the RNA 5′-end structure modulate promoter clearance. Thus, the initiation-to-elongation transition is controlled by a complex interplay between RNAP-binding protein factors and the growing RNA chain.

Transcription Initiation by Mix and Match Elements: Flexibility for Polymerase Binding to Bacterial Promoters

Bacterial RNA polymerase is composed of a core of subunits (β β′, α1, α2, ω), which have RNA synthesizing activity, and a specificity factor (σ), which identifies the start of transcription by recognizing and binding to sequence elements within promoter DNA. Four core promoter consensus sequences, the –10 element, the extended –10 (TGn) element, the –35 element, and the UP elements, have been known for many years; the importance of a nontemplate G at position -5 has been recognized more recently. However, the functions of these elements are not the same. The AT-rich UP elements, the –35 elements (–35TTGACA–30), and the extended –10 (15TGn–13) are recognized as double-stranded binding elements, whereas the –5 nontemplate G is recognized in the context of single-stranded DNA at the transcription bubble. Furthermore, the –10 element (–12TATAAT–7) is recognized as both double-stranded DNA for the T:A bp at position –12 and as nontemplate, single-stranded DNA from positions –11 to –7. The single-stranded sequences at positions –11 to –7 as well as the –5 contribute to later steps in transcription initiation that involve isomerization of polymerase and separation of the promoter DNA around the transcription start site. Recent work has demonstrated that the double-stranded elements may be used in various combinations to yield an effective promoter. Thus, while some minimal number of contacts is required for promoter function, polymerase allows the elements to be mixed and matched. Interestingly, which particular elements are used does not appear to fundamentally alter the transcription bubble generated in the stable complex. In this review, we discuss the multiple steps involved in forming a transcriptionally competent polymerase/promoter complex, and we examine what is known about polymerase recognition of core promoter elements. We suggest that considering promoter elements according to their involvement in early (polymerase binding) or later (polymerase isomerization) steps in transcription initiation rather than simply from their match to conventional promoter consensus sequences is a more instructive form of promoter classification.

Possible roles of σ-dependent RNA polymerase pausing in transcription regulation

The σ subunit of bacterial RNA polymerase is required for promoter recognition during transcription initiation but may also regulate transcription elongation. The principal σ⁷⁰ subunit of Escherichia coli was shown to travel with RNA polymerase and induce transcriptional pausing at promoter-like motifs, with potential regulatory output. We recently demonstrated that an alternative σ³⁸ subunit can also induce RNA polymerase pausing. Here, we outline proposed regulatory roles of σ-dependent pausing in bacteria and discuss possible interplay between alternative σ variants and regulatory factors during transcription elongation.

σ38-dependent promoter-proximal pausing by bacterial RNA polymerase

Transcription initiation by bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP) requires a variable σ subunit that directs it to promoters for site-specific priming of RNA synthesis. The principal σ subunit responsible for expression of house-keeping genes can bind the transcription elongation complex after initiation and induce RNAP pausing through specific interactions with promoter-like motifs in transcribed DNA. We show that the stationary phase and stress response σ³⁸ subunit can also induce pausing by Escherichia coli RNAP on DNA templates containing promoter-like motifs in the transcribed regions. The pausing depends on σ³⁸ contacts with the DNA template and RNAP core enzyme and results in formation of backtracked transcription elongation complexes, which can be reactivated by Gre factors that induce RNA cleavage by RNAP. Our data suggest that σ³⁸ can bind the transcription elongation complex in trans but likely acts in cis during transcription initiation, by staying bound to RNAP and recognizing promoter-proximal pause signals. Analysis of σ³⁸-dependent promoters reveals that a substantial fraction of them contain potential pause-inducing motifs, suggesting that σ³⁸-depended pausing may be a common phenomenon in bacterial transcription.

Control of transcription elongation by GreA determines rate of gene expression in Streptococcus pneumoniae

Transcription by RNA polymerase may be interrupted by pauses caused by backtracking or misincorporation that can be resolved by the conserved bacterial Gre-factors. However, the consequences of such pausing in the living cell remain obscure. Here, we developed molecular biology and transcriptome sequencing tools in the human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae and provide evidence that transcription elongation is rate-limiting on highly expressed genes. Our results suggest that transcription elongation may be a highly regulated step of gene expression in S. pneumoniae. Regulation is accomplished via long-living elongation pauses and their resolution by elongation factor GreA. Interestingly, mathematical modeling indicates that long-living pauses cause queuing of RNA polymerases, which results in 'transcription traffic jams' on the gene and thus blocks its expression. Together, our results suggest that long-living pauses and RNA polymerase queues caused by them are a major problem on highly expressed genes and are detrimental for cell viability. The major and possibly sole function of GreA in S. pneumoniae is to prevent formation of backtracked elongation complexes.

Bacterial sigma factors: a historical, structural, and genomic perspective

Transcription initiation is the crucial focal point of gene expression in prokaryotes. The key players in this process, sigma factors (σs), associate with the catalytic core RNA polymerase to guide it through the essential steps of initiation: promoter recognition and opening, and synthesis of the first few nucleotides of the transcript. Here we recount the key advances in σ biology, from their discovery 45 years ago to the most recent progress in understanding their structure and function at the atomic level. Recent data provide important structural insights into the mechanisms whereby σs initiate promoter opening. We discuss both the housekeeping σs, which govern transcription of the majority of cellular genes, and the alternative σs, which direct RNA polymerase to specialized operons in response to environmental and physiological cues. The review concludes with a genome-scale view of the extracytoplasmic function σs, the most abundant group of alternative σs.

Distinct functions of the RNA polymerase σ subunit region 3.2 in RNA priming and promoter escape

The σ subunit of bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP) has been implicated in all steps of transcription initiation, including promoter recognition and opening, priming of RNA synthesis, abortive initiation and promoter escape. The post-promoter-recognition σ functions were proposed to depend on its conserved region σ3.2 that directly contacts promoter DNA immediately upstream of the RNAP active centre and occupies the RNA exit path. Analysis of the transcription effects of substitutions and deletions in this region in Escherichia coli σ⁷⁰ subunit, performed in this work, suggests that (i) individual residues in the σ3.2 finger collectively contribute to RNA priming by RNAP, likely by the positioning of the template DNA strand in the active centre, but are not critical to promoter escape; (ii) the physical presence of σ3.2 in the RNA exit channel is important for promoter escape; (iii) σ3.2 promotes σ dissociation during initiation and suppresses σ-dependent promoter-proximal pausing; (iv) σ3.2 contributes to allosteric inhibition of the initiating NTP binding by rifamycins. Thus, region σ3.2 performs distinct functions in transcription initiation and its inhibition by antibiotics. The B-reader element of eukaryotic factor TFIIB likely plays similar roles in RNAPII transcription, revealing common principles in transcription initiation in various domains of life.

Archaeology of RNA polymerase: factor swapping during the transcription cycle

All RNAPs (RNA polymerases) repeatedly make use of their DNA template by progressing through the transcription cycle multiple times. During transcription initiation and elongation, distinct sets of transcription factors associate with multisubunit RNAPs and modulate their nucleic-acid-binding and catalytic properties. Between the initiation and elongation phases of the cycle, the factors have to be exchanged by a largely unknown mechanism. We have shown that the binding sites for initiation and elongation factors are overlapping and that the binding of the factors to RNAP is mutually exclusive. This ensures an efficient exchange or 'swapping' of factors and could furthermore assist RNAP during promoter escape, enabling robust transcription. A similar mechanism applies to the bacterial RNAP system. The elongation factors are evolutionarily conserved between the bacterial (NusG) and archaeo-eukaryotic (Spt5) systems; however, the initiation factors [σ and TBP (TATA-box-binding protein)/TF (transcription factor) B respectively] are not. Therefore we propose that this factor-swapping mechanism, operating in all three domains of life, is the outcome of convergent evolution.

Single-strand promoter traps for bacterial RNA polymerase

Besides canonical double-strand DNA promoters, multisubunit RNAPs (RNA polymerases) recognize a number of specific single-strand DNA and RNA templates, resulting in synthesis of various types of RNA transcripts. The general recognition principles and the mechanisms of transcription initiation on these templates are not fully understood. To investigate further the molecular mechanisms underlying the transcription of single-strand templates by bacterial RNAP, we selected high-affinity single-strand DNA aptamers that are specifically bound by RNAP holoenzyme, and characterized a novel class of aptamer-based transcription templates. The aptamer templates have a hairpin structure that mimics the upstream part of the open promoter bubble with accordingly placed specific promoter elements. The affinity of the RNAP holoenzyme to such DNA structures probably underlies its promoter-melting activity. Depending on the template structure, the aptamer templates can direct synthesis of productive RNA transcripts or effectively trap RNAP in the process of abortive synthesis, involving DNA scrunching, and competitively inhibit promoter recognition. The aptamer templates provide a novel tool for structure-function studies of transcription initiation by bacterial RNAP and its inhibition.

Pause, play, repeat: CDKs push RNAP II's buttons

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) play a central role in governing eukaryotic cell division. It is becoming clear that the transcription cycle of RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) is also regulated by CDKs; in metazoans, the cell cycle and transcriptional CDK networks even share an upstream activating kinase, which is itself a CDK. From recent chemical-genetic analyses we know that CDKs and their substrates control events both early in transcription (the transition from initiation to elongation) and late (3' end formation and transcription termination). Moreover, mutual dependence on CDK activity might couple the "beginning" and "end" of the cycle, to ensure the fidelity of mRNA maturation and the efficient recycling of RNAP II from sites of termination to the transcription start site (TSS). As is the case for CDKs involved in cell cycle regulation, different transcriptional CDKs act in defined sequence on multiple substrates. These phosphorylations are likely to influence gene expression by several mechanisms, including direct, allosteric effects on the transcription machinery, co-transcriptional recruitment of proteins needed for mRNA-capping, splicing and 3' end maturation, dependent on multisite phosphorylation of the RNAP II C-terminal domain (CTD) and, perhaps, direct regulation of RNA-processing or histone-modifying machinery. Here we review these recent advances, and preview the emerging challenges for transcription-cycle research.

The σ70 region 1.2 regulates promoter escape by unwinding DNA downstream of the transcription start site

The mechanisms of abortive synthesis and promoter escape during initiation of transcription are poorly understood. Here, we show that, after initiation of RNA synthesis, non-specific interaction of σ⁷⁰ region 1.2, present in all σ⁷⁰ family factors, with the non-template strand around position −4 relative to the transcription start site facilitates unwinding of the DNA duplex downstream of the transcription start site. This leads to stabilization of short RNA products and allows their extension, i.e. promoter escape. We show that this activity of σ⁷⁰ region 1.2 is assisted by the β-lobe domain, but does not involve the β′-rudder or the β′-switch-2, earlier proposed to participate in promoter escape. DNA sequence independence of this function of σ⁷⁰ region 1.2 suggests that it may be conserved in all σ⁷⁰ family factors. Our results indicate that the abortive nature of initial synthesis is caused, at least in part, by failure to open the downstream DNA by the β-lobe and σ region 1.2.

Identification and characterization of the cognate anti-sigma factor and specific promoter elements of a T. tengcongensis ECF sigma factor

Extracytoplasmic function (ECF) σ factors, the largest group of alternative σ factors, play important roles in response to environmental stresses. Tt-RpoE1 is annotated as an ECF σ factor in Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis. In this study, we revealed that the Tt-tolB gene located downstream of the Tt-rpoE1 gene encoded the cognate anti-σ factor, which could inhibit the transcription activity of Tt-RpoE1 by direct interaction with Tt-RpoE1 via its N-terminal domain. By in vitro transcription assay, the auto-regulation ability of Tt-RpoE1 was determined, and band shift assay showed that Tt-RpoE1 preferred to bind a fork-junction promoter DNA. With truncation or base-specific scanning mutations, the contribution of the nucleotides in −35 and −10 regions to interaction between Tt-RpoE1 and promoter DNA was explored. The promoter recognition pattern of Tt-RpoE1 was determined as 5′ tGTTACN₁₆CGTC 3′, which was further confirmed by in vitro transcription assays. This result showed that the Tt-RpoE1-recognized promoter possessed a distinct −10 motif (−13CGTC−10) as the recognition determinant, which is distinguished from the −10 element recognized by σ⁷⁰. Site-directed mutagenesis in Region 2.4 of Tt-RpoE1 indicated that the “D” residue of DXXR motif was responsible for recognizing the −12G nucleotide. Our results suggested that distinct −10 motif may be an efficient and general strategy used by ECF σ factors in adaptive response regulation of the related genes.

Distinct functions of regions 1.1 and 1.2 of RNA polymerase σ subunits from Escherichia coli and Thermus aquaticus in transcription initiation

RNA polymerase (RNAP) from thermophilic Thermus aquaticus is characterized by higher temperature of promoter opening, lower promoter complex stability, and higher promoter escape efficiency than RNAP from mesophilic Escherichia coli. We demonstrate that these differences are in part explained by differences in the structures of the N-terminal regions 1.1 and 1.2 of the E. coli σ(70) and T. aquaticus σ(A) subunits. In particular, region 1.1 and, to a lesser extent, region 1.2 of the E. coli σ(70) subunit determine higher promoter complex stability of E. coli RNAP. On the other hand, nonconserved amino acid substitutions in region 1.2, but not region 1.1, contribute to the differences in promoter opening between E. coli and T. aquaticus RNAPs, likely through affecting the σ subunit contacts with DNA nucleotides downstream of the -10 element. At the same time, substitutions in σ regions 1.1 and 1.2 do not affect promoter escape by E. coli and T. aquaticus RNAPs. Thus, evolutionary substitutions in various regions of the σ subunit modulate different steps of the open promoter complex formation pathway, with regions 1.1 and 1.2 affecting promoter complex stability and region 1.2 involved in DNA melting during initiation.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis RbpA protein is a new type of transcriptional activator that stabilizes the σ A-containing RNA polymerase holoenzyme

RbpA is an RNA polymerase (RNAP)-binding protein whose presence increases the tolerance levels of Mycobacteria to the first-line anti-tuberculosis drug rifampicin by an unknown mechanism. Here, we show that the role of Mycobacterium tuberculosis RbpA in resistance is indirect because it does not affect the sensitivity of RNAP to rifampicin while it stimulates transcription controlled by the housekeeping σ^A-factor. The transcription regulated by the stress-related σ^F was not affected by RbpA. The binding site of RbpA maps to the RNAP β subunit Sandwich-Barrel Hybrid Motif, which has not previously been described as an activator target and does not overlap the rifampicin binding site. Our data suggest that RbpA modifies the structure of the core RNAP, increases its affinity for σ^A and facilitates the assembly of the transcriptionally competent promoter complexes. We propose that RbpA is an essential partner which advantages σ^A competitiveness for core RNAP binding with respect to the alternative σ factors. The RbpA-driven stimulation of the housekeeping gene expression may help Mycobacteria to tolerate high rifampicin levels and to adapt to the stress conditions during infection.

Characteristics of σ-dependent pausing by RNA polymerases from Escherichia coli and Thermus aquaticus

The σ(70) subunit of RNA polymerase (RNAP) is the major transcription initiation factor in Escherichia coli. During transcription initiation, conserved region 2 of the σ(70) subunit interacts with the -10 promoter element and plays a key role in DNA melting around the starting point of transcription. During transcription elongation, the σ(70) subunit can induce pauses in RNA synthesis owing to interactions of region 2 with DNA regions similar to the -10 promoter element. We demonstrated that the major σ subunit from Thermus aquaticus (σ(A)) is also able to induce transcription pausing by T. aquaticus RNAP. However, hybrid RNAP containing the σ(A) subunit and E. coli core RNAP is unable to form pauses during elongation, while being able to recognize promoters and initiate transcription. Inability of the σ(A) subunit to induce pausing by E. coli RNAP is explained by the substitutions of non-conserved amino acids in region 2, in the subregions interacting with the RNAP core enzyme. Thus, changes in the structure of region 2 of the σ(70) subunit have stronger effects on transcription pausing than on promoter recognition, likely by weakening the interactions of the σ subunit with the core RNAP during transcription elongation.

A nexus for gene expression-molecular mechanisms of Spt5 and NusG in the three domains of life

Evolutionary related multisubunit RNA polymerases (RNAPs) transcribe the genomes of all living organisms. Whereas the core subunits of RNAPs are universally conserved in all three domains of life—indicative of a common evolutionary descent—this only applies to one RNAP-associated transcription factor—Spt5, also known as NusG in bacteria. All other factors that aid RNAP during the transcription cycle are specific for the individual domain or only conserved between archaea and eukaryotes. Spt5 and its bacterial homologue NusG regulate gene expression in several ways by (i) modulating transcription processivity and promoter proximal pausing, (ii) coupling transcription and RNA processing or translation, and (iii) recruiting termination factors and thereby silencing laterally transferred DNA and protecting the genome against double-stranded DNA breaks. This review discusses recent discoveries that identify Spt5-like factors as evolutionary conserved nexus for the regulation and coordination of the machineries responsible for information processing in the cell.

Structural transitions in the transcription elongation complexes of bacterial RNA polymerase during σ-dependent pausing

A transcription initiation factor, the σ⁷⁰ subunit of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase (RNAP) induces transcription pausing through the binding to a promoter-like pause-inducing sequence in the DNA template during transcription elongation. Here, we investigated the mechanism of σ-dependent pausing using reconstituted transcription elongation complexes which allowed highly efficient and precisely controlled pause formation. We demonstrated that, following engagement of the σ subunit to the pause site, RNAP continues RNA synthesis leading to formation of stressed elongation complexes, in which the nascent RNA remains resistant to Gre-induced cleavage while the transcription bubble and RNAP footprint on the DNA template extend in downstream direction, likely accompanied by DNA scrunching. The stressed complexes can then either break σ-mediated contacts and continue elongation or isomerize to a backtracked conformation. Suppressing of the RNAP backtracking decreases pausing and increases productive elongation. On the contrary, core RNAP mutations that impair RNAP interactions with the downstream part of the DNA template stimulate pausing, presumably by destabilizing the stressed complexes. We propose that interplay between DNA scrunching and RNAP backtracking may have an essential role in transcription pausing and its regulation in various systems.

Structural basis for promoter-10 element recognition by the bacterial RNA polymerase σ subunit

The key step in bacterial promoter opening is recognition of the -10 promoter element (T(-12)A(-11)T(-10)A(-9)A(-8)T(-7) consensus sequence) by the RNA polymerase σ subunit. We determined crystal structures of σ domain 2 bound to single-stranded DNA bearing-10 element sequences. Extensive interactions occur between the protein and the DNA backbone of every -10 element nucleotide. Base-specific interactions occur primarily with A(-11) and T(-7), which are flipped out of the single-stranded DNA base stack and buried deep in protein pockets. The structures, along with biochemical data, support a model where the recognition of the -10 element sequence drives initial promoter opening as the bases of the nontemplate strand are extruded from the DNA double-helix and captured by σ. These results provide a detailed structural basis for the critical roles of A(-11) and T(-7) in promoter melting and reveal important insights into the initiation of transcription bubble formation.

Factor-independent transcription pausing caused by recognition of the RNA-DNA hybrid sequence

RNA polymerase pausing during transcription is implicated in controlling gene expression. This study identifies a new type of pausing mechanism, by which the RNAP core recognizes the shape of base pairs of the RNA–DNA hybrid, which determines the rate of translocation and the nucleotide addition cycle. The expression of a number of viral and bacterial genes is shown to be subject to this mechanism.

Pausing of transcription is an important step of regulation of gene expression in bacteria and eukaryotes. Here we uncover a factor-independent mechanism of transcription pausing, which is determined by the ability of the elongating RNA polymerase to recognize the sequence of the RNA–DNA hybrid. We show that, independently of thermodynamic stability of the elongation complex, RNA polymerase directly ‘senses' the shape and/or identity of base pairs of the RNA–DNA hybrid. Recognition of the RNA–DNA hybrid sequence delays translocation by RNA polymerase, and thus slows down the nucleotide addition cycle through ‘in pathway' mechanism. We show that this phenomenon is conserved among bacterial and eukaryotic RNA polymerases, and is involved in regulatory pauses, such as a pause regulating the production of virulence factors in some bacteria and a pause regulating transcription/replication of HIV-1. The results indicate that recognition of RNA–DNA hybrid sequence by multi-subunit RNA polymerases is involved in transcription regulation and may determine the overall rate of transcription elongation.

Σ(70)-dependent transcription pausing in Escherichia coli

After promoter escape in Escherichia coli, the initiating σ(70) factor is retained by core RNA polymerase (RNAP) for at least tens of nucleotides. While it is bound, σ(70) can engage a repeat of a promoter DNA element located downstream of the promoter and thereby induce a transcription pause. The σ(70)-dependent promoter-proximal pause that occurs at all lambdoid phage late gene promoters is essential to regulation of the late gene operons. Several, and possibly many, E. coli promoters have associated σ(70)-dependent pauses. Clearly characterized σ(70)-dependent pauses occur within 25 nucleotides of the start site, but σ(70)-dependent pausing might occur farther downstream as well. In this review, we summarize evidence for σ(70)-dependent promoter-proximal and promoter-distal pausing, and we discuss its potential regulatory function and mechanistic basis.

Interaction of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase σ70 subunit with promoter elements in the context of free σ70, RNA polymerase holoenzyme, and the β'-σ70 complex

Promoter recognition by RNA polymerase is a key point in gene expression and a target of regulation. Bacterial RNA polymerase binds promoters in the form of the holoenzyme, with the σ specificity subunit being primarily responsible for promoter recognition. Free σ, however, does not recognize promoter DNA, and it has been proposed that the intrinsic DNA binding ability is masked in free σ but becomes unmasked in the holoenzyme. Here, we use a newly developed fluorescent assay to quantitatively study the interactions of free σ(70) from Escherichia coli, the β'-σ complex, and the σ(70) RNA polymerase (RNAP) holoenzyme with non-template strand of the open promoter complex transcription bubble in the context of model non-template oligonucleotides and fork junction templates. We show that σ(70), free or in the context of the holoenzyme, recognizes the -10 promoter element with the same efficiency and specificity. The result implies that there is no need to invoke a conformational change in σ for recognition of the -10 element in the single-stranded form. In the holoenzyme, weak but specific interactions of σ are increased by contacts with DNA downstream of the -10 element. We further show that region 1 of σ(70) is required for stronger interaction with non-template oligonucleotides in the holoenzyme but not in free σ. Finally, we show that binding of the β' RNAP subunit is sufficient to allow specific recognition of the TG motif of the extended -10 promoter element by σ(70). The new fluorescent assay, which we call a protein beacon assay, will be instrumental in quantitative dissection of fine details of RNAP interactions with promoters.

A backtrack-inducing sequence is an essential component of Escherichia coli σ(70)-dependent promoter-proximal pausing

RNA polymerase of both bacteria and eukaryotes can stall or pause within tens of base pairs of its initiation site at the promoter, a state that may reflect important regulatory events in early transcription. In the bacterial model system, the σ(70) initiation factor stabilizes such pauses by binding a downstream repeat of a promoter segment, especially the '-10' promoter element. We first show here that the '-35' promoter element also can stabilize promoter-proximal pausing, through interaction with σ(70) region 4. We further show that an essential element of either type of pause is a sequence just upstream of the site of pausing that stabilizes RNA polymerase backtracking. Although the pause is not intrinsically backtracked, we suggest that the same sequence element is required both to stabilize the paused state and to potentiate backtracking.

AtSIG6, a plastid sigma factor from Arabidopsis, reveals functional impact of cpCK2 phosphorylation

Plastids contain sigma factors, i.e. gene-regulatory proteins for promoter binding and transcription initiation. Despite the physical and functional similarity shared with their prokaryotic counterparts, the plant sigma factors have distinguishing features: most notably the existence of a variable extra sequence comprising their N-terminal portions. This distinct architecture is reflected by functional differences, including phosphorylation control by organellar protein kinase(s) closely related to nucleocytosolic, rather than bacterial-type, enzymes. In particular, cpCK2, a nuclear-coded plastid-targeted casein kinase 2, has been implicated as a key component in plant sigma factor phosphorylation and transcriptional regulation (Eur. J. Biochem. 269, 2002, 3329; Planta, 219, 2004, 298). Although this notion is based mainly on biochemical evidence and in vitro systems, the recent availability of Arabidopsis sigma knock-out lines for complementation by intact and mutant sigma cDNAs has opened up new strategies for the study of transcription regulatory mechanisms in vivo. Using Arabidopsis sigma factor 6 (AtSIG6) as a paradigm, we present data suggesting that: (i) this factor is a substrate for regulatory phosphorylation by cpCK2 both in vitro and in vivo; (ii) cpCK2 phosphorylation of SIG6 occurs at multiple sites, which can widely differ in their effect on the visual and/or molecular phenotype; (iii) in vivo usage of the perhaps most critical cpCK2 site defined by Ser174 requires (pre-)phosphorylation at the n + 3 serine residue Ser177, pointing to 'pathfinder' kinase activity capable of generating a functional cpCK2 substrate site.

Stress tolerance and environmental fitness of Pseudomonas fluorescens A506, which has a mutation in RpoS

Establishment of suppressive populations of bacterial biological control agents on aerial plant surfaces is a critical phase in biologically based management of floral diseases. Periodically, biocontrol agents encounter inhospitable conditions for growth on plants; consequently, tolerance of environmental stresses may contribute to their fitness. In many gram-negative bacteria, including strains of Pseudomonas spp., the capacity to survive environmental stresses is influenced by the stationary phase sigma factor RpoS. This study focused on the role of RpoS in stress response and epiphytic fitness of Pseudomonas fluorescens A506, a well-studied bacterial biological control agent. We detected a frameshift mutation in the rpoS of A506 and demonstrated that the mutation resulted in a truncated, nonfunctional RpoS. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we deleted a nucleotide from rpoS, which then encoded a full-length, functional RpoS. We compared the stress response and epiphytic fitness of A506 with derivative strains having the functional full-length RpoS or a disrupted, nonfunctional RpoS. RpoS had little effect on stress response of A506 and no consistent influence on epiphytic population size of A506 on pear or apple leaves or flowers. Although the capacity of strain A506 to withstand exposure to environmental stresses was similar to that of other fluorescent pseudomonads, this capacity was largely independent of rpoS.

Mutational analysis of Escherichia coli sigma28 and its target promoters reveals recognition of a composite -10 region, comprised of an 'extended -10' motif and a core -10 element

Sigma28 controls the expression of flagella-related genes and is the most widely distributed alternative sigma factor, present in motile Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The distinguishing feature of sigma28 promoters is a long -10 region (GCCGATAA). Despite the fact that the upstream GC is highly conserved, previous studies have not indicated a functional role for this motif. Here we examine the functional relevance of the GCCG motif and determine which residues in sigma28 participate in its recognition. We find that the GCCG motif is a functionally important composite element. The upstream GC constitutes an extended -10 motif and is recognized by R91, a residue in Domain 3 of sigma28. The downstream CG is the upstream edge of -10 region of the promoter; two residues in Region 2.4, D81 and R84, participate in its recognition. Consistent with their role in base-specific recognition of the promoter, R91, D81 and D84 are universally conserved in sigma28 orthologues. Sigma28 is the second Group 3 sigma shown to use an extended -10 region in promoter recognition, raising the possibility that other Group 3 sigmas will do so as well.

Dissection of the bacteriophage T4 late promoter complex

Activated transcription of the bacteriophage T4 late genes is generated by a mechanism that stands apart from the common modalities of transcriptional regulation: the activator is gp45, the viral replisome's sliding clamp; two sliding-clamp-binding proteins, gp33 and gp55, replace the host RNA polymerase (RNAP) sigma subunit. We have mutagenized, reconfigured and selectively disrupted individual interactions of the sliding clamp with gp33 and gp55 and have monitored effects on transcription. The C-terminal sliding-clamp-binding epitopes of gp33 and gp55 are perfectly interchangeable, but the functions of these two RNAP-sliding clamp connections differ: only the gp33-gp45 linkage is essential for activation, while loss of the gp55-gp45 linkage impairs but does not abolish activation. Formation of transcription-ready promoter complexes by the sliding-clamp-activated wild-type T4 RNAP resists competition by high concentrations of the polyanion heparin. This avid formation of promoter complexes requires both linkages of the T4 late RNAP to the sliding clamp. Preopening the promoter compensates for loss of the gp55-gp45 but not the gp33-gp45 linkage. We interpret the relationship of these findings and our prior analysis to the common model of transcriptional initiation in bacteria in terms of two parallel pathways, with two RNAP holoenzymes and two DNA templates: (1) gp55-RNAP and the T4 late promoter execute basal transcription; (2) gp55-gp33-RNAP and the T4 late promoter with its mobile enhancer, the T4 sliding clamp, execute activated transcription. gp55 and gp33 perform sigma-like functions, gp55 in promoter recognition and gp33 (as well as gp55) in enhancer recognition. gp33 operates the switch between these two pathways by repressing basal transcription.

Fine structure of the promoter-sigma region 1.2 interaction

We recently proposed that a nontemplate strand base in the discriminator region of bacterial promoters, the region between the -10 element and the transcription start site, makes sequence-specific contacts to region 1.2 of the sigma subunit of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase (RNAP). Because rRNA promoters contain sequences within the discriminator region that are suboptimal for interaction with sigma1.2, these promoters have the kinetic properties required for regulation by the RNAP-binding factors DksA and ppGpp. Here, we use zero-length cross-linking and mutational, kinetic, and footprinting studies to map RNAP interactions with the nontemplate strand bases at the junction of the -10 element and the discriminator region in an unregulated rRNA promoter variant and in the lambdaP(R) promoter. Our studies indicate that nontemplate strand bases adjacent to the -10 element bind within a 9-aa interval in sigma1.2 (residues 99-107). We also demonstrate that the downstream-most base on the nontemplate strand of the -10 hexamer cross-links to sigma region 2, and not to sigma1.2. Our results refine models of RNAP-DNA interactions in the promoter complex that are crucial for regulation of transcription initiation.

Lineage-specific amino acid substitutions in region 2 of the RNA polymerase sigma subunit affect the temperature of promoter opening

Highly conserved amino acid residues in region 2 of the RNA polymerase sigma subunit are known to participate in promoter recognition and opening. We demonstrated that nonconserved residues in this region collectively determine lineage-specific differences in the temperature of promoter opening.

The elongation factor RfaH and the initiation factor sigma bind to the same site on the transcription elongation complex

RNA polymerase is a target for numerous regulatory events in all living cells. Recent studies identified a few "hot spots" on the surface of bacterial RNA polymerase that mediate its interactions with diverse accessory proteins. Prominent among these hot spots, the beta' subunit clamp helices serve as a major binding site for the initiation factor sigma and for the elongation factor RfaH. Furthermore, the two proteins interact with the nontemplate DNA strand in transcription complexes and thus may interfere with each other's activity. We show that RfaH does not inhibit transcription initiation but, once recruited to RNA polymerase, abolishes sigma-dependent pausing. We argue that this apparent competition is due to a steric exclusion of sigma by RfaH that is stably bound to the nontemplate DNA and clamp helices, both of which are necessary for the sigma recruitment to the transcription complex. Our findings highlight the key regulatory role played by the clamp helices during both initiation and elongation stages of transcription.

Transcription initiation by mix and match elements: flexibility for polymerase binding to bacterial promoters

Bacterial RNA polymerase is composed of a core of subunits (beta, beta', alpha1, alpha2, omega), which have RNA synthesizing activity, and a specificity factor (sigma), which identifies the start of transcription by recognizing and binding to sequences elements within promoter DNA. Four core promoter consensus sequences, the -10 element, the extended -10 (TGn) element, the -35 element, and the UP elements, have been known for many years; the importance of a nontemplate G at position -5 has been recognized more recently. However, the functions of these elements are not the same. The AT-rich UP elements, the -35 elements ((-35)TTGACA(-30)), and the extended -10 ((-15)TGn(-13)) are recognized as double stranded binding elements, whereas the -5 nontemplate G is recognized in the context of single-stranded DNA at the transcription bubble. Furthermore, the -10 element ((-12)TATAAT(-7)) is recognized as both double strand DNA for the T:A bp at position -12 and as nontemplate, single-strand DNA from positions -11 to -7. The single-strand sequences at positions -11 to -7 as well as the -5 contribute to later steps in transcription initiation that involve isomerization of polymerase and separation of the promoter DNA around the transcription start site. Recent work has demonstrated that the double strand elements may be used in various combinations to yield an effective promoter. Thus, while some minimal number of contacts is required for promoter function, polymerase allows the elements to be mixed and matched. Interestingly, which particular elements are used does not appear to fundamentally alter the transcription bubble generated in the stable complex. In this review, we discuss the multiple steps involved in forming a transcriptionally competent polymerase/promoter complex, and we examine what is known about polymerase recognition of core promoter elements. We suggest that considering promoter elements according to their involvement in early (polymerase binding) or later (polymerase isomerization) steps in transcription initiation rather than simply from their match to conventional promoter consensus sequences is a more instructive form of promoter classification.

Specific Recognition of the -10 Promoter Element by the Free RNA Polymerase σ Subunit

Bacterial RNA polymerase holoenzyme relies on its sigma subunit for promoter recognition and opening. In the holoenzyme, regions 2 and 4 of the sigma subunit are positioned at an optimal distance to allow specific recognition of the -10 and -35 promoter elements, respectively. In free sigma, the promoter binding regions are positioned closer to each other and are masked for interactions with the promoter, with sigma region 1 playing a role in the masking. To analyze the DNA-binding properties of the free sigma, we selected single-stranded DNA aptamers that are specific to primary sigma subunits from several bacterial species, including Escherichia coli and Thermus aquaticus. The aptamers share a consensus motif, TGTAGAAT, that is similar to the extended -10 promoter. We demonstrate that recognition of this motif by sigma region 2 occurs without major structural rearrangements of sigma observed upon the holoenzyme formation and is not inhibited by sigma regions 1 and 4. Thus, the complex process of the -10 element recognition by RNA polymerase holoenzyme can be reduced to a simple system consisting of an isolated sigma subunit and a short aptamer oligonucleotide.