pRb: master of differentiation. Coupling irreversible cell cycle withdrawal with induction of muscle-specific transcription

Molecular Regulation of Porcine Skeletal Muscle Development: Insights from Research on CDC23 Expression and Function

Cell division cycle 23 (CDC23) is a component of the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) subunit in the anaphase-promoting complex or cyclosome (APC/C) complex, which participates in the regulation of mitosis in eukaryotes. However, the regulatory model and mechanism by which the CDC23 gene regulates muscle production in pigs are largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the expression of CDC23 in pigs, and the results indicated that CDC23 is widely expressed in various tissues and organs. In vitro cell experiments have demonstrated that CDC23 promotes the proliferation of myoblasts, as well as significantly positively regulating the differentiation of skeletal muscle satellite cells. In addition, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) revealed a significant downregulation of the cell cycle pathway during the differentiation process of skeletal muscle satellite cells. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network showed a high degree of interaction between genes related to the cell cycle pathway and CDC23. Subsequently, in differentiated myocytes induced after overexpression of CDC23, the level of CDC23 exhibited a significant negative correlation with the expression of key factors in the cell cycle pathway, suggesting that CDC23 may be involved in the inhibition of the cell cycle signaling pathway in order to promote the differentiation process. In summary, we preliminarily determined the function of CDC23 with the aim of providing new insights into molecular regulation during porcine skeletal muscle development.

Tceal7 Regulates Skeletal Muscle Development through Its Interaction with Cdk1

We have previously reported Tceal7 as a muscle-specific gene that represses myoblast proliferation and promotes myogenic differentiation. The regulatory mechanism of Tceal7 gene expression has been well clarified recently. However, the underlying mechanism of Tceal7 function in skeletal muscle development remains to be elucidated. In the present study, we have generated an MCK 6.5 kb-HA-Tceal7 transgenic model. The transgenic mice are born normally, while they have displayed defects in the growth of body weight and skeletal muscle myofiber during postnatal development. Although four RxL motifs have been identified in the Tceal7 protein sequence, we have not detected any direct protein-protein interaction between Tceal7 and Cyclin A2, Cyclin B1, Cylin D1, or Cyclin E1. Further analysis has revealed the interaction between Tceal7 and Cdk1 instead of Cdk2, Cdk4, or Cdk6. Transgenic overexpression of Tceal7 reduces phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 Ser65, p70S6K1 Thr389, and Cdk substrates in skeletal muscle. In summary, these studies have revealed a novel mechanism of Tceal7 in skeletal muscle development.

Context-Dependent Functions of KDM6 Lysine Demethylases in Physiology and Disease

Histone lysine methylation is a major epigenetic modification that participates in several cellular processes including gene regulation and chromatin structure. This mark can go awry in disease contexts such as cancer. Two decades ago, the discovery of histone demethylase enzymes thirteen years ago sheds light on the complexity of the regulation of this mark. Here we address the roles of lysine demethylases JMJD3 and UTX in physiological and disease contexts. The two demethylases play pivotal roles in many developmental and disease contexts via regulation of di- and trimethylation of lysine 27 on histone H3 (H3K27me2/3) in repressing gene expression programs. JMJD3 and UTX participate in several biochemical settings including methyltransferase and chromatin remodeling complexes. They have histone demethylase-dependent and -independent activities and a variety of context-specific interacting factors. The structure, amounts, and function of the demethylases can be altered in disease due to genetic alterations or aberrant gene regulation. Therefore, academic and industrial initiatives have targeted these enzymes using a number of small molecule compounds in therapeutic approaches. In this chapter, we will touch upon inhibitor formulations, their properties, and current efforts to test them in preclinical contexts to optimize their therapeutic outcomes. Demethylase inhibitors are currently used in targeted therapeutic approaches that might be particularly effective when used in conjunction with systemic approaches such as chemotherapy.

Simultaneous depletion of RB, RBL1 and RBL2 affects endoderm differentiation of human embryonic stem cells

RB is a well-known cell cycle regulator controlling the G1 checkpoint. Previous reports have suggested that it can influence cell fate decisions not only by regulating cell proliferation and survival but also by interacting with transcription factors and epigenetic modifiers. However, the functional redundancy of RB family proteins (RB, RBL1 and RBL2) renders it difficult to investigate their roles during early development, especially in human. Here, we address this problem by generating human embryonic stem cells lacking RB family proteins. To achieve this goal, we first introduced frameshift mutations in RBL1 and RBL2 genes using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology, and then integrated the shRNA-expression cassette to knockdown RB upon tetracycline treatment. The resulting RBL1/2_dKO+RB_iKD cells remain pluripotent and efficiently differentiate into the primary germ layers in vitro even in the absence of the RB family proteins. In contrast, we observed that subsequent differentiation into foregut endoderm was impaired without the expression of RB, RBL1 and RBL2. Thus, it is suggested that RB proteins are dispensable for the maintenance and acquisition of cell identities during early development, but they are essential to generate advanced derivatives after the formation of primary germ layers. These results also indicate that our RBL1/2_dKO+RB_iKD cell lines are useful to depict the detailed molecular roles of RB family proteins in the maintenance and generation of various cell types accessible from human pluripotent stem cells.

Beyond What Your Retina Can See: Similarities of Retinoblastoma Function between Plants and Animals, from Developmental Processes to Epigenetic Regulation

The Retinoblastoma protein (pRb) is a key cell cycle regulator conserved in a wide variety of organisms. Experimental analysis of pRb's functions in animals and plants has revealed that this protein participates in cell proliferation and differentiation processes. In addition, pRb in animals and its orthologs in plants (RBR), are part of highly conserved protein complexes which suggest the possibility that analogies exist not only between functions carried out by pRb orthologs themselves, but also in the structure and roles of the protein networks where these proteins are involved. Here, we present examples of pRb/RBR participation in cell cycle control, cell differentiation, and in the regulation of epigenetic changes and chromatin remodeling machinery, highlighting the similarities that exist between the composition of such networks in plants and animals.

Dedifferentiation, transdifferentiation and cell fusion: in vivo reprogramming strategies for regenerative medicine

Regenerative capacities vary enormously across the animal kingdom. In contrast to most cold-blooded vertebrates, mammals, including humans, have very limited regenerative capacity when it comes to repairing damaged or degenerating tissues. Here, we review the main mechanisms of tissue regeneration, underlying the importance of cell dedifferentiation and reprogramming. We discuss the significance of cell fate and identity changes in the context of regenerative medicine, with a particular focus on strategies aiming at the promotion of the body's self-repairing mechanisms. We also introduce some of the most recent advances that have resulted in complete reprogramming of cell identity in vivo. Lastly, we discuss the main challenges that need to be addressed in the near future to develop in vivo reprogramming approaches with therapeutic potential.

PARP1 facilitates EP300 recruitment to the promoters of the subset of RBL2-dependent genes

Differentiation of human monocytes is associated with proliferation arrest resulting from activation of the inter alia retinoblastoma protein family of gene repressors, which target gene promoters in an E2F-dependent manner. To investigate RBL2 contribution to defining monocyte phenotype and function, we used primer libraries. We identified genes encoding two surface receptors (CXCR1 and IL17RE) and two TLR signaling mediators (CD86 and NFKB2) that are repressed by the RBL2-E2F4-HDAC1-BRM complex. Surprisingly, PARP1 co-regulated 24 out of the 28 identified genes controlled by RBL2. Upon RBL2 silencing, PARP1 was recruited to one subset of RBL2-dependent genes, represented by MAP2K6 and MAPK3. RBL2 silencing also restored PARP1 transcription. Gene promoters enriched in PARP1 were characterized by increased histone acetylation and the replacement of HDAC1 with EP300. While PARP1 was dispensable for HDAC1 dissociation, EP300 was found only at gene promoters enriched in PARP1. EP300 activated transcription of PARP1/RBL2 co-regulated genes, but not genes solely controlled by RBL2. DNA was a prerequisite to the formation of an immunoprecipitated PARP1-EP300 complex, suggesting that PARP1 enabled EP300 binding, which in turn activated gene transcription. Notably, PARP1 overexpression failed to overcome the inhibitory effect of RBL2 on MAP2K6 and MAPK3 transcription. The same interdependence was observed in proliferating cancer cells; the low abundance of RBL2 resulted in PARP1-mediated EP300 recruitment to promoters of the MAP2K6 and MAPK3 genes. We conclude that RBL2 may indirectly regulate transcription of some genes by controlling PARP1-mediated EP300 recruitment.

Linkages between changes in the 3D organization of the genome and transcription during myotube differentiation in vitro

Background

The spatial organization of eukaryotic genomes facilitates and reflects the underlying nuclear processes that are occurring in the cell. As such, the spatial organization of a genome represents a window on the genome biology that enables analysis of the nuclear regulatory processes that contribute to mammalian development.

Methods

In this study, Hi-C and RNA-seq were used to capture the genome organization and transcriptome in mouse muscle progenitor cells (C2C12 myoblasts) before and after differentiation to myotubes, in the presence or absence of the cytidine analogue AraC.

Results

We observed significant local and global developmental changes despite high levels of correlation between the myotubes and myoblast genomes. Notably, the genes that exhibited the greatest variation in transcript levels between the different developmental stages were predominately within the euchromatic compartment. There was significant re-structuring and changes in the expression of replication-dependent histone variants within the HIST1 locus. Finally, treating terminally differentiated myotubes with AraC resulted in additional changes to the transcriptome and 3D genome organization of sets of genes that were all involved in pyroptosis.

Conclusions

Collectively, our results provide evidence for muscle cell-specific responses to developmental and environmental stimuli mediated through a chromatin structure mechanism.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13395-017-0122-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cr(VI) induces premature senescence through ROS-mediated p53 pathway in L-02 hepatocytes

Hexavalent Chromium [Cr(VI)], which can be found of various uses in industries such as metallurgy and textile dying, can cause a number of human disease including inflammation and cancer. Unlike previous research that focused on Cr(VI)-induced oxidative damage and apoptosis, this study placed emphasis on premature senescence that can be induced by low-dose and long-term Cr(VI) exposure. We found Cr(VI) induced premature senescence in L-02 hepatocytes, as confirmed by increase in senescence associated-β-galactosidase (SA-β-Gal) activity. Cr(VI) stabilized p53 through phosphorylation at Ser15 and increased expression of p53-transcriptional target p21. Mechanism study revealed Cr(VI) targeted and inhibited mitochondrial respiratory chain complex (MRCC) I and II to enhance reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. By applying antioxidant Trolox, we also confirmed that ROS mediated p53 activation. A tetracycline-inducible lentiviral expression system containing shRNA to p53 was used to knockout p53. We found p53 could inhibit pro-survival genes B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), myeloid leukemia-1 (Mcl-1) and S phase related cell cycle proteins cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2), Cyclin E to induce premature senescence, and the functional role of ROS in Cr(VI)-induced premature senescence is depend on p53. The results suggest that Cr(VI) has a role in premature senescence by promoting ROS-dependent p53 activation in L-02 hepatocytes.

G9a promotes proliferation and inhibits cell cycle exit during myogenic differentiation

Differentiation of skeletal muscle cells, like most other cell types, requires a permanent exit from the cell cycle. The epigenetic programming underlying these distinct cellular states is not fully understood. In this study, we provide evidence that the lysine methyltransferase G9a functions as a central axis to regulate proliferation and differentiation of skeletal muscle cells. Transcriptome analysis of G9a knockdown cells revealed deregulation of many cell cycle regulatory genes. We demonstrate that G9a enhances cellular proliferation by two distinct mechanisms. G9a blocks cell cycle exit via methylation-dependent transcriptional repression of the MyoD target genes p21(Cip/Waf1) and Rb1. In addition, it activates E2F1-target genes in a methyltransferase activity-independent manner. We show that G9a is present in the E2F1/PCAF complex, and enhances PCAF occupancy and histone acetylation marks at E2F1-target promoters. Interestingly, G9a preferentially associates with E2F1 at the G1/S phase and with MyoD at the G2/M phase. Our results provide evidence that G9a functions both as a co-activator and a co-repressor to enhance cellular proliferation and inhibit myogenic differentiation.

Involvement of Fra-1 in Retinal Ganglion Cell Apoptosis in Rat Light-Induced Retina Damage Model

Cell cycle re-entry, in which Fra-1 (transcription factor FOS-related antigen 1) plays an important role, is a key process in neuronal apoptosis. However, the expression and function of Fra-1 in retinal ganglion cell (RGC) apoptosis are unknown. To investigate whether Fra-1 was involved in RGC apoptosis, we performed a light-induced retinal damage model in adult rats. Western blot revealed that up-regulation of Fra-1 expression appeared in retina after light exposure (LE). Immunostaining indicated that increased Fra-1 was mainly expressed in RGCs in retinal ganglion cell layer (GCL) after LE. Co-localization of Fra-1 with active caspase-3 or TUNEL-positive cells in GCL after LE was also detected. In addition, Fra-1 expression increased in parallel with cyclin D1 and phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinase p38 (p-p38) expression in retina after LE. Furthermore, Fra-1, cyclin D1, and active caspase-3 protein expression decreased by intravitreal injection of SB203580, a highly selective inhibitor of p38 MAP kinase (p38 MAPK). All these results suggested that Fra-1 may be associated with RGC apoptosis after LE regulated by p38 MAPK through cell cycle re-entry mechanism.

Invasive Cell Fate Requires G1 Cell-Cycle Arrest and Histone Deacetylase-Mediated Changes in Gene Expression

Despite critical roles in development and cancer, the mechanisms that specify invasive cellular behavior are poorly understood. Through a screen of transcription factors in Caenorhabditis elegans, we identified G1 cell-cycle arrest as a precisely regulated requirement of the anchor cell (AC) invasion program. We show that the nuclear receptor nhr-67/tlx directs the AC into G1 arrest in part through regulation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor cki-1. Loss of nhr-67 resulted in non-invasive, mitotic ACs that failed to express matrix metalloproteinases or actin regulators and lack invadopodia, F-actin-rich membrane protrusions that facilitate invasion. We further show that G1 arrest is necessary for the histone deacetylase HDA-1, a key regulator of differentiation, to promote pro-invasive gene expression and invadopodia formation. Together, these results suggest that invasive cell fate requires G1 arrest and that strategies targeting both G1-arrested and actively cycling cells may be needed to halt metastatic cancer.

Cell Differentiation and Checkpoint

DNA damage is induced in many types of cells by internal and external cell stress. When DNA is damaged, DNA Damage Response (DDR) programs are activated to repair the DNA lesions in order to preserve genomic integrity and suppress subsequent malignant transformation. Among these programs is cell cycle checkpoint that ensures cell cycle arrest and subsequent repair of the damaged DNA, apoptosis and senescence in various phases of the cell cycle. Moreover, recent studies have established the cell differentiation checkpoint, the other type of the checkpoint that is specifically activated in the course of differentiation. We will discuss the evidences that support the link between DNA damage proteins and C2C12 cell differentiation.

Nutlin-3 down-regulates retinoblastoma protein expression and inhibits muscle cell differentiation

The p53 tumor suppressor gene plays a critical role in regulation of proliferation, cell death and differentiation. The MDM2 oncoprotein is a major negative regulator for p53 by binding to and targeting p53 for proteasome-mediated degradation. The small molecule inhibitor, nutlin-3, disrupts MDM2-p53 interaction resulting in stabilization and activation of p53 protein. We have previously shown that nutlin-3 activates p53, leading to MDM2 accumulation as concomitant of reduced retinoblastoma (Rb) protein stability. It is well known that Rb is important in muscle development and myoblast differentiation and that rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), or cancer of the skeletal muscle, typically harbors MDM2 amplification. In this study, we show that nutlin-3 inhibited myoblast proliferation and effectively prevented myoblast differentiation, as evidenced by lack of expression of muscle differentiation markers including myogenin and myosin heavy chain (MyHC), as well as a failure to form multinucleated myotubes, which were associated with dramatic increases in MDM2 expression and decrease in Rb protein levels. These results indicate that nutlin-3 can effectively inhibit muscle cell differentiation.

Bone environment is essential for osteosarcoma development from transformed mesenchymal stem cells

The cellular microenvironment plays a relevant role in cancer development. We have reported that mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) deficient for p53 alone or together with RB (p53(-/-)RB(-/-)) originate leiomyosarcoma after subcutaneous (s.c.) inoculation. Here, we show that intrabone or periosteal inoculation of p53(-/-) or p53(-/-)RB(-/-) bone marrow- or adipose tissue-derived MSCs originated metastatic osteoblastic osteosarcoma (OS). To assess the contribution of bone environment factors to OS development, we analyzed the effect of the osteoinductive factor bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) and calcified substrates on p53(-/-)RB(-/-) MSCs. We show that BMP-2 upregulates the expression of osteogenic markers in a WNT signaling-dependent manner. In addition, the s.c. coinfusion of p53(-/-)RB(-/-) MSCs together with BMP-2 resulted in appearance of tumoral osteoid areas. Likewise, when p53(-/-)RB(-/-) MSCs were inoculated embedded in a calcified ceramic scaffold composed of hydroxyapatite and tricalciumphosphate (HA/TCP), tumoral bone formation was observed in the surroundings of the HA/TCP scaffold. Moreover, the addition of BMP-2 to the ceramic/MSC implants further increased the tumoral osteoid matrix. Together, these data indicate that bone microenvironment signals are essential to drive OS development.

Up-regulation of SKIP relates to retinal ganglion cells apoptosis after optic nerve crush in vivo

Cell cycle re-entry is one of the key processes in neuronal apoptosis. Previous studies have shown that Ski-interacting protein (SKIP) played an important role in cell cycle re-entry. However, its expression and function in optic nerve injury are still with limited acquaintance. To investigate whether SKIP is involved in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) death, we performed an optic nerve crush (ONC) model in adult rats. Western blot analysis revealed that up-regulation of SKIP was present in retina at 5 days after ONC. Immunofluorescent labeling indicated that up-regulated SKIP was found mainly in RGCs. We also investigated co-localization of SKIP with active-caspase-3 and TUNEL (apoptotic markers) -positive cells in the retina after ONC. In addition, the expression of SKIP was increased in parallel with P53 and P21 in retina after ONC. All these results suggested that up-regulation of SKIP in the retina was associated with RGCs death after ONC.

Deep functional redundancy between FAMA and FOUR LIPS in stomatal development

Functional redundancy arises between gene paralogs as well as non-homologous genes that play a common role at a shared node. The bHLH transcription factor FAMA, along with the paralogous MYB genes, FOUR LIPS (FLP) and MYB88 all ensure that Arabidopsis stomata contain just two guard cells (GCs) by enforcing a single symmetric precursor cell division before stomatal maturity. Consistent with this function, FLP and FAMA exhibit the same expression pattern in which both translational GFP fusions emit fluorescence just before and after symmetric division; however, FAMA but not FLP is required to confer GC fate. Strikingly, swapping the genes and promoters of the FLP and FAMA genes results in the reciprocal complementation of respective loss-of-function mutants. Thus, an FLP transgene can restore GC fate to a fama mutant background. FAMA, FLP and the FLP paralog MYB88 were previously shown to influence higher order functions in stomatal development, including maintaining and stabilizing stomatal fate. Here we show that these overlapping functions are likely to also involve interactions between FLP and FAMA with the RETINOBLASTOMA-RELATED (RBR) protein.

Lamina-associated polypeptide (LAP)2α and nucleoplasmic lamins in adult stem cell regulation and disease

A-type lamins are components of the lamina network at the nuclear envelope, which mediates nuclear stiffness and anchors chromatin to the nuclear periphery. However, A-type lamins are also found in the nuclear interior. Here we review the roles of the chromatin-associated, nucleoplasmic LEM protein, lamina-associated polypeptide 2α (LAP2α) in the regulation of A-type lamins in the nuclear interior. The lamin A/C-LAP2α complex may be involved in the regulation of the retinoblastoma protein-mediated pathway and other signaling pathways balancing proliferation and differentiation, and in the stabilization of higher-order chromatin organization throughout the nucleus. Loss of LAP2α in mice leads to selective depletion of the nucleoplasmic A-type lamin pool, promotes the proliferative stem cell phenotype of tissue progenitor cells, and delays stem cell differentiation. These findings support the hypothesis that LAP2α and nucleoplasmic lamins are regulators of adult stem cell function and tissue homeostasis. Finally, we discuss potential implications of this concept for defining the molecular disease mechanisms of lamin-linked diseases such as muscular dystrophy and premature aging syndromes.

Flt3L is a novel regulator of skeletal myogenesis

Various cues initiate multiple signaling pathways to regulate the highly coordinated process of skeletal myogenesis. Myoblast differentiation comprises a series of ordered events starting with cell cycle withdrawal and ending with myocyte fusion, with each step probably controlled by multiple extracellular signals and intracellular signaling pathways. Here we report the identification of Fms-like tyrokine kinase 3 ligand (Flt3L) signaling as a novel regulator of skeletal myogenesis. Flt3L is a multifunctional cytokine in immune cells, but its involvement in skeletal muscle formation has not been reported. We found that Flt3L is expressed in C2C12 myoblasts, with levels increasing throughout differentiation. Knockdown of Flt3L, or its receptor Flt3, suppresses myoblast differentiation, which is rescued by recombinant Flt3L or Flt3, respectively. Differentiation is not rescued, however, by recombinant ligand when the receptor is knocked down, or vice versa, suggesting that Flt3L and Flt3 function together. Flt3L knockdown also inhibits differentiation in mouse primary myoblasts. Both Flt3L and Flt3 are highly expressed in nascent myofibers during muscle regeneration in vivo, and Flt3L siRNA impairs muscle regeneration, validating the physiological significance of Flt3L function in myogenesis. We have identified a cellular mechanism for the myogenic function of Flt3L, as we show that Flt3L promotes cell cycle exit that is necessary for myogenic differentiation. Furthermore, we identify Erk as a relevant target of Flt3L signaling during myogenesis, and demonstrate that Flt3L suppresses Erk signaling through p120RasGAP. In summary, our work reveals an unexpected role for an immunoregulatory cytokine in skeletal myogenesis and a new myogenic pathway.

Emerging roles of RB family: new defense mechanisms against tumor progression

The retinoblastoma (RB) family of proteins, including RB1/p105, retinoblastoma-like 1 (RBL1/p107), and retinoblastoma-like 2 (RBL2/p130), is principally known for its central role on cell cycle regulation. The inactivation of RB proteins confers a growth advantage and underlies multiple types of tumors. Recently, it has been shown that RB proteins have other important roles, such as preservation of chromosomal stability, induction and maintenance of senescence and regulation of apoptosis, cellular differentiation, and angiogenesis. RB proteins are involved in many cellular pathways and act as transcriptional regulators able to bind several transcription factors, thus antagonizing or potentiating their functions. Furthermore, RB proteins might control the expression of specific target genes by recruiting chromatin remodeling enzymes. Although many efforts have been made to dissect the different functions of RB proteins, it remains still unclear which are necessary for cancer suppression and the role they play at distinct steps of carcinogenesis. Moreover, RB proteins can behave differently in various cell types or cell states. Elucidating the intricate RB protein network in regulating cell fate might provide the knowledge necessary to explain their potent tumor suppressor activity and to design novel therapeutic strategies.

The differentiation stage of p53-Rb-deficient bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells imposes the phenotype of in vivo sarcoma development

Increasing evidence suggests that mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) carrying specific mutations are at the origin of some sarcomas. We have reported that the deficiency of p53 alone or in combination with Rb (Rb(-/-) p53(-/-)) in adipose-derived MSCs (ASCs) promotes leiomyosarcoma-like tumors in vivo. Here, we hypothesized that the source of MSCs and/or the cell differentiation stage could determine the phenotype of sarcoma development. To investigate whether there is a link between the source of MSCs and sarcoma phenotype, we generated p53(-/-) and Rb(-/-)p53(-/-) MSCs from bone marrow (BM-MSCs). Both genotypes of BM-MSCs initiated leiomyosarcoma formation similar to p53(-/-) and Rb(-/-)p53(-/-) ASCs. In addition, gene expression profiling revealed transcriptome similarities between p53- or Rb-p53-deficient BM-MSCs/ASCs and muscle-associated sarcomagenesis. These data suggest that the tissue source of MSC does not seem to determine the development of a particular sarcoma phenotype. To analyze whether the differentiation stage defines the sarcoma phenotype, BM-MSCs and ASCs were induced to differentiate toward the osteogenic lineage, and both p53 and Rb were excised using Cre-expressing adenovectors at different stages along osteogenic differentiation. Regardless the level of osteogenic commitment, the inactivation of Rb and p53 in BM-MSC-derived, but not in ASC-derived, osteogenic progenitors gave rise to osteosarcoma-like tumors, which could be serially transplanted. This indicates that the osteogenic differentiation stage of BM-MSCs imposes the phenotype of in vivo sarcoma development, and that BM-MSC-derived osteogenic progenitors rather than undifferentiated BM-MSCs, undifferentiated ASCs or ASC-derived osteogenic progenitors, represent the cell of origin for osteosarcoma development.

Stomatal development: a plant's perspective on cell polarity, cell fate transitions and intercellular communication

The plant stomatal lineage manifests features common to many developmental contexts: precursor cells are chosen from an initially equivalent field of cells, undergo asymmetric and self-renewing divisions, communicate among themselves and respond to information from a distance. As we review here, the experimental accessibility of these epidermal lineages, particularly in Arabidopsis, has made stomata a conceptual and technical framework for the study of cell fate, stem cells, and cell polarity in plants.

Muscle development, regeneration and laminopathies: how lamins or lamina-associated proteins can contribute to muscle development, regeneration and disease

The aim of this review article is to evaluate the current knowledge on associations between muscle formation and regeneration and components of the nuclear lamina. Lamins and their partners have become particularly intriguing objects of scientific interest since it has been observed that mutations in genes coding for these proteins lead to a wide range of diseases called laminopathies. For over the last 10 years, various laboratories worldwide have tried to explain the pathogenesis of these rare disorders. Analyses of the distinct aspects of laminopathies resulted in formulation of different hypotheses regarding the mechanisms of the development of these diseases. In the light of recent discoveries, A-type lamins—the main building blocks of the nuclear lamina—together with other key elements, such as emerin, LAP2α and nesprins, seem to be of great importance in the modulation of various signaling pathways responsible for cellular differentiation and proliferation.

MiR-351 transiently increases during muscle regeneration and promotes progenitor cell proliferation and survival upon differentiation

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate many biological processes including muscle development. However, little is known regarding miRNA regulation of muscle regeneration. Murine tibialis anterior muscle was evaluated after cardiotoxin-induced injury and used for global miRNA expression analysis. From day 1 through day 21 following injury, 298 miRNAs were significantly changed at least at one time point, including 86 miRNAs that were altered >10-fold compared with uninjured skeletal muscle. Temporal miRNA expression patterns included inflammation-related miRNAs (miR-223 and -147) that increased immediately after injury; this pattern contrasted to that of mature muscle-specific miRNAs (miR-1, -133a, and -499) that abruptly decreased following injury followed by upregulation in later regenerative events. Another cluster of miRNAs were transiently increased in the early days of muscle regeneration including miR-351, a miRNA that was also transiently expressed during myogenic progenitor cell (MPC) differentiation in vitro. Based on computational predictions, further studies demonstrated that E2f3 was a target of miR-351 in myoblasts. Moreover, knockdown of miR-351 expression inhibited MPC proliferation and promoted apoptosis during MPC differentiation, whereas miR-351 overexpression protected MPC from apoptosis during differentiation. Collectively, these observations suggest that miR-351 is involved in both the maintenance of MPC proliferation and the transition into differentiated myotubes. Thus, a novel, time-dependent sequence of molecular events during muscle regeneration has been identified; miR-351 inhibits E2f3 expression, a key regulator of cell cycle progression and proliferation, and promotes MPC proliferation and protects early differentiating MPC from apoptosis, important events in the hostile tissue environment after acute muscle injury.

EGF and HB-EGF enhance the proliferation of programmable cells of monocytic origin (PCMO) through activation of MEK/ERK signaling and improve differentiation of PCMO-derived hepatocyte-like cells

Background

Hepatocyte-like cells (NeoHepatocytes) generated from a peripheral blood monocyte-derived stem cell-like cell (the PCMO) are a promising alternative for primary hepatocytes in cell transplantation studies to cure liver diseases. However, to be therapeutically effective NeoHepatocytes are needed in large quantities. It was the aim of the present study to investigate i) whether the proportion of actively proliferating NeoHepatocytes can be enhanced by supplementing the PCMO differentiation medium (containing M-CSF, IL-3, and human serum) with either EGF or HB-EGF and ii) which signaling pathway underlies the promitotic effect.

Results

EGF and HB-EGF enhanced cell proliferation of PCMOs as demonstrated by increased expression of cycle control genes (ABL, ANAPC2, CDC2, CDK4, CDK6), phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein, and increased PCMO cell numbers after stimulation with EGF or HB-EGF. EGF also raised the number of monocytes expressing the proliferation marker Ki67. PCMOs expressed the EGF receptors EGFR (ERBB1) and ERBB3, and expression of both increased during PCMO generation. Phosphoimmunoblotting of PCMOs indicated that both EGF and HB-EGF activated MEK-1/2 and ERK1/2 in a concentration-dependent fashion with the effect of EGF being more prominent. EGF treatment further decreased expression of p47^phox and increased that of Nanog indicating enhanced dedifferentiation and pluripotency, respectively. Treatment with both EGF and HB-EGF resulted in NeoHepatocytes with improved functional parameters.

Conclusions

The results suggested that the addition of EGF or HB-EGF to PCMO differentiation medium superactivates MEK/ERK signaling which then increases both PCMO proliferation, number, and functional differentiation of PCMO-derived NeoHepatocytes.

Dynamical principles of cell-cycle arrest: reversible, irreversible, and mixed strategies

Living cells often alternate between proliferating and nonproliferating states as part of individual or collective strategies to adapt to complex and changing environments. To this aim, they have evolved a biochemical regulatory network enabling them to switch between cell-division cycles (i.e., oscillatory state) and cell-cycle arrests (i.e., steady state) in response to extracellular cues. This can be achieved by means of a variety of bifurcation mechanisms that potentially give rise to qualitatively distinct cell-cycle arrest properties. In this paper, we study the dynamics of a minimal biochemical network model in which a cell-division oscillator and a differentiation switch mutually antagonize. We identify the existence of three biologically plausible bifurcation scenarios organized around a codimension-four swallowtail-homoclinic singularity. As a result, the model exhibits a broad repertoire of cell-cycle arrest properties in terms of reversibility of these arrests, tunability of interdivision time, and ability to track time-varying signals. This dynamic versatility would explain the diversity of cell-cycle arrest strategies developed in different living species and functional contexts.

Multiple novel functions of lamina associated polypeptide 2α in striated muscle

Lamina-associated polypeptide 2α (LAP2α) is a nucleoplasmic protein that interacts with A-type lamins and the retinoblastoma protein (pRb) and affects pRb-mediated cell cycle regulation and chromatin organization. Mutations in lamin A/C and LAP2α cause late onset striated muscle diseases, but the molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. We have recently reported on the striated muscle phenotype of LAP2α-deficient mice, revealing new unexpected roles of LAP2α. Loss of LAP2α in skeletal muscle caused an upregulated stem cell-type gene expression in muscle satellite cell progeny and their delayed myogenic differentiation in vitro. In vivo, the myofiber-associated muscle stem cell pool was increased. In addition, absence of LAP2α promoted muscle remodeling towards fast myofiber types in the soleus muscle of old animals. In cardiac tissue, deletion of LAP2α caused systolic dysfunction in young mice with an increased susceptibility for fibrosis in old animals. The functional impairment in the heart was accompanied by a deregulation of major cardiac transcription factors, GATA4 and MEF2c and activation of compensatory pathways, including the downregulation of β-adrenergic receptor signaling.Here we discuss potential functions of LAP2α in striated muscle at molecular level and how loss of these functions may cause the diverse muscle phenotypes. We propose that LAP2α serves as a transcriptional co-regulator, which controls muscle specific gene expression during muscle regeneration, muscle remodeling and stress response.

A network of genes antagonistic to the LIN-35 retinoblastoma protein of Caenorhabditis elegans

The Caenorhabditis elegans pRb ortholog, LIN-35, functions in a wide range of cellular and developmental processes. This includes a role of LIN-35 in nutrient utilization by the intestine, which it carries out redundantly with SLR-2, a zinc-finger protein. This and other redundant functions of LIN-35 were identified in genetic screens for mutations that display synthetic phenotypes in conjunction with loss of lin-35. To explore the intestinal role of LIN-35, we conducted a genome-wide RNA-interference-feeding screen for suppressors of lin-35; slr-2 early larval arrest. Of the 26 suppressors identified, 17 fall into three functional classes: (1) ribosome biogenesis genes, (2) mitochondrial prohibitins, and (3) chromatin regulators. Further characterization indicates that different categories of suppressors act through distinct molecular mechanisms. We also tested lin-35; slr-2 suppressors, as well as suppressors of the synthetic multivulval phenotype, to determine the spectrum of lin-35-synthetic phenotypes that could be suppressed following inhibition of these genes. We identified 19 genes, most of which are evolutionarily conserved, that can suppress multiple unrelated lin-35-synthetic phenotypes. Our study reveals a network of genes broadly antagonistic to LIN-35 as well as genes specific to the role of LIN-35 in intestinal and vulval development. Suppressors of multiple lin-35 phenotypes may be candidate targets for anticancer therapies. Moreover, screening for suppressors of phenotypically distinct synthetic interactions, which share a common altered gene, may prove to be a novel and effective approach for identifying genes whose activities are most directly relevant to the core functions of the shared gene.

WITHDRAWN: Hexavalent chromium induces premature senescence through reactive oxygen species-mediated p53 pathway in L-02 hepatocytes

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Myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2) tethering to muscle selective A-kinase anchoring protein (mAKAP) is necessary for myogenic differentiation

Differentiation of skeletal myoblast cells to functional myotubes involves highly regulated transcriptional dynamics. The myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2) transcription factors are critical to this process, synergizing with the master regulator MyoD to promote muscle specific gene transcription. MEF2 is extensively regulated by myogenic stimuli, both transcriptionally and post-translationally, but to date there has been little progress in understanding how signals upstream of MEF2 are coordinated to produce a coherent response. In this study, we define a novel interaction between the muscle A-kinase anchoring protein (mAKAP) and MEF2 in skeletal muscle. Discrete domains of MEF2 and mAKAP bind directly. Their interaction was exploited to probe the function of mAKAP-tethered MEF2 during myogenic differentiation. Dominant interference of MEF2/mAKAP binding was sufficient to block MEF2 activation during the early stages of differentiation. Furthermore, extended expression of this disrupting domain effectively blocked myogenic differentiation, halting the formation of myotubes and decreasing expression of several differentiation markers. This study expands our understanding of the regulation of MEF2 in skeletal muscle and identifies the mAKAP scaffold as a facilitator of MEF2 transcription and myogenic differentiation.

Emerging roles of RETINOBLASTOMA-RELATED proteins in evolution and plant development

RETINOBLASTOMA-RELATED (RBR) proteins are plant homologs of the human tumor suppressor pRB. Similar to their animal counterparts they have roles in cell cycle regulation and differentiation. We discuss recent findings of the evolution of RBR functions ranging from a molecular ruler and metabolic integrator in algae to a coordinator of differentiation in gametophytes. Genetic analysis and manipulation of protein levels during gametophytic and post-embryonic plant development are now providing new insights into the function of RBR in stem cell maintenance, cell specification and differentiation. We briefly explain interactions of RBR with chromatin-modifying complexes that appear to be a central underlying molecular mechanism during developmental transitions.

Understanding pRb: toward the necessary development of targeted treatments for retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma is a pediatric retinal tumor initiated by biallelic inactivation of the retinoblastoma gene (RB1). RB1 was the first identified tumor suppressor gene and has defined roles in the regulation of cell cycle progression, DNA replication, and terminal differentiation. However, despite the abundance of work demonstrating the molecular function and identifying binding partners of pRb, the challenge facing molecular biologists and clinical oncologists is how to integrate this vast body of molecular knowledge into the development of targeted therapies for treatment of retinoblastoma. We propose that a more thorough genetic understanding of retinoblastoma would inform targeted treatment decisions and could improve outcomes and quality of life in children affected by this disease.

Induction of ZEB proteins by inactivation of RB protein is key determinant of mesenchymal phenotype of breast cancer

We previously showed that depletion of the retinoblastoma protein (RB) induces down-regulation of the adhesion molecule E-cadherin and thereby triggers the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. To further characterize the effect of RB inactivation on the phenotype of cancer cells, we have now examined RB expression in human breast cancer cell lines and clinical specimens. We found that RB-inactive cells exhibit a mesenchymal-like morphology and are highly invasive. We also found that ZEB proteins, transcriptional repressors of the E-cadherin gene, are markedly up-regulated in these cells in a manner sensitive to the miR-200 family of microRNAs. Moreover, depletion of ZEB in RB-inactive cells suppressed cell invasiveness and proliferation and induced epithelial marker expression. These results implicate ZEB in induction of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, as well as in maintenance of the mesenchymal phenotype in RB-inactive cells. We also developed a screening program for inhibitors of ZEB1 expression and thereby identified several cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors that blocked both ZEB1 expression and RB phosphorylation. Together, our findings suggest that RB inactivation contributes to tumor progression not only through loss of cell cycle control but also through up-regulation of ZEB expression and induction of an invasive phenotype.

Retinoblastoma protein modulates the inverse relationship between cellular proliferation and elastogenesis

The mechanism that leads to the inverse relationship between heightened cellular proliferation and the cessation of elastic fibers production, observed during formation of the arterial occlusions and dermal scars, is not fully understood. Because the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), responsible for cell cycle initiation, has also been implicated in insulin-like growth factor-I-mediated signaling stimulating elastin gene activation, we explored whether differential phosphorylation of Rb by various cyclin·cyclin-dependent kinase complexes would be responsible for promoting either elastogenic or pro-proliferative signals. We first tested cultures of dermal fibroblasts derived from Costello syndrome patients, in which heightened proliferation driven by mutated oncogenic H-Ras coincides with inhibition of elastogenesis. We found that Costello syndrome fibroblasts display elevated level of Rb phosphorylation on serine 780 (Ser(P)-780-Rb) and that pharmacological inhibition of Ras with radicicol, Mek/Erk with PD98059, or cyclin-dependent kinase 4 with PD0332991 not only leads to down-regulation of Ser(P)-780-Rb levels but also enhances Rb phosphorylation on threonine-821 (Thr(P)-821-Rb), which coincides with the recovery of elastin production. Then we demonstrated that treatment of normal skin fibroblasts with the pro-proliferative PDGF BB also up-regulates Ser(P)-780-Rb levels, but treatment with the pro-elastogenic insulin-like growth factor-I activates cyclinE-cdk2 complex to phosphorylate Rb on Thr-821. Importantly, we have established that elevation of Thr(P)-821-Rb promotes Rb binding to the Sp1 transcription factor and that successive binding of the Rb-Sp1 complex to the retinoblastoma control element within the elastin gene promoter stimulates tropoelastin transcription. In summary, we provide novel insight into the role of Rb in mediating the inverse relationship between elastogenesis and cellular proliferation.

Expression profiling of FSHD-1 and FSHD-2 cells during myogenic differentiation evidences common and distinctive gene dysregulation patterns

BACKGROUND

Determine global gene dysregulation affecting 4q-linked (FSHD-1) and non 4q-linked (FSHD-2) cells during early stages of myogenic differentiation. This approach has been never applied to FSHD pathogenesis.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

By in vitro differentiation of FSHD-1 and FSHD-2 myoblasts and gene chip analysis we derived that gene expression profile is altered only in FSHD-1 myoblasts and FSHD-2 myotubes. The changes seen in FSHD-1 regarded a general defect in cell cycle progression, probably due to the upregulation of myogenic markers PAX3 and MYOD1, and a deficit of factors (SUV39H1 and HMGB2) involved in D4Z4 chromatin conformation. On the other hand, FSHD-2 mytubes were characterized by a general defect in RNA metabolism, protein synthesis and degradation and, to a lesser extent, in cell cycle. Common dysregulations regarded genes involved in response to oxidative stress and in sterol biosynthetic process. Interestingly, our results also suggest that miRNAs might be implied in both FSHD-1 and FSHD-2 gene dysregulation. Finally, in both cell differentiation systems, we did not observe a gradient of altered gene expression throughout the 4q35 chromosome.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

FSHD-1 and FSHD-2 cells showed, in different steps of myogenic differentiation, a global deregulation of gene expression rather than an alteration of expression of 4q35 specific genes. In general, FSHD-1 and FSHD-2 global gene deregulation interested common and distinctive biological processes. In this regard, defects of cell cycle progression (FSHD-1 and to a lesser extent FSHD-2), protein synthesis and degradation (FSHD-2), response to oxidative stress (FSHD-1 and FSHD-2), and cholesterol homeostasis (FSHD-1 and FSHD-2) may in general impair a correct myogenesis. Taken together our results recapitulate previously reported defects of FSHD-1, and add new insights into the gene deregulation characterizing both FSHD-1 and FSHD-2, in which miRNAs may play a role.

Secretome Analysis of Skeletal Myogenesis Using SILAC and Shotgun Proteomics

Myogenesis, the formation of skeletal muscle, is a multistep event that commences with myoblast proliferation, followed by cell-cycle arrest, and finally the formation of multinucleated myotubes via fusion of mononucleated myoblasts. Each step is orchestrated by well-documented intracellular factors, such as cytoplasmic signalling molecules and nuclear transcription factors. Regardless, the key step in getting a more comprehensive understanding of the regulation of myogenesis is to explore the extracellular factors that are capable of eliciting the downstream intracellular factors. This could further provide valuable insight into the acute cellular response to extrinsic cues in maintaining normal muscle development. In this paper, we survey the intracellular factors that respond to extracellular cues that are responsible for the cascades of events during myogenesis: myoblast proliferation, cell-cycle arrest of myoblasts, and differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes. This focus on extracellular perspective of muscle development illustrates our mass spectrometry-based proteomic approaches to identify differentially expressed secreted factors during skeletal myogenesis.

G1/S transcription factor orthologues Swi4p and Swi6p are important but not essential for cell proliferation and influence hyphal development in the fungal pathogen Candida albicans

The G(1)/S transition is a critical control point for cell proliferation and involves essential transcription complexes termed SBF and MBF in Saccharomyces cerevisiae or MBF in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. In the fungal pathogen Candida albicans, G(1)/S regulation is not clear. To gain more insight into the G(1)/S circuitry, we characterized Swi6p, Swi4p and Mbp1p, the closest orthologues of SBF (Swi6p and Swi4p) and MBF (Swi6p and Mbp1p) components in S. cerevisiae. The mbp1Δ/Δ cells showed minor growth defects, whereas swi4Δ/Δ and swi6Δ/Δ yeast cells dramatically increased in size, suggesting a G(1) phase delay. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) of transcription profiles revealed that genes associated with G(1)/S phase were significantly enriched in cells lacking Swi4p and Swi6p. These expression patterns suggested that Swi4p and Swi6p have repressing as well as activating activity. Intriguingly, swi4Δ/Δ swi6Δ/Δ and swi4Δ/Δ mbp1Δ/Δ strains were viable, in contrast to the situation in S. cerevisiae, and showed pleiotropic phenotypes that included multibudded yeast, pseudohyphae, and intriguingly, true hyphae. Consistently, GSEA identified strong enrichment of genes that are normally modulated during C. albicans-host cell interactions. Since Swi4p and Swi6p influence G(1) phase progression and SBF binding sites are lacking in the C. albicans genome, these factors may contribute to MBF activity. Overall, the data suggest that the putative G(1)/S regulatory machinery of C. albicans contains novel features and underscore the existence of a relationship between G(1) phase and morphogenetic switching, including hyphal development, in the pathogen.

Cell cycle regulation during proliferation and differentiation of mammalian muscle precursor cells

Proliferation and differentiation of muscle precursor cells are intensively studied not only in the developing mouse embryo but also using models of skeletal muscle regeneration or analyzing in vitro cultured cells. These analyses allowed to show the universality of the cell cycle regulation and also uncovered tissue-specific interplay between major cell cycle regulators and factors crucial for the myogenic differentiation. Examination of the events accompanying proliferation and differentiation leading to the formation of functional skeletal muscle fibers allows understanding the molecular basis not only of myogenesis but also of skeletal muscle regeneration. This chapter presents the basis of the cell cycle regulation in proliferating and differentiating muscle precursor cells during development and after muscle injury. It focuses at major cell cycle regulators, myogenic factors, and extracellular environment impacting on the skeletal muscle.

Myogenesis and rhabdomyosarcoma the Jekyll and Hyde of skeletal muscle

Rhabdomyosarcoma, a neoplasm composed of skeletal myoblast-like cells, represents the most common soft tissue sarcoma in children. The application of intensive chemotherapeutics and refined surgical and radiation therapy approaches have improved survival for children with localized disease over the past 3 decades; however, these approaches have not improved the dismal outcome for children with metastatic and recurrent rhabdomyosarcoma. Elegant studies have defined the molecular mechanisms driving skeletal muscle lineage commitment and differentiation, and the machinery that couples differentiation with irreversible cell proliferation arrest. Further, detailed molecular analyses indicate that rhabdomyosarcoma cells have lost the capacity to fully differentiate when challenged to do so in experimental models. We review the intersection of normal skeletal muscle developmental biology and the molecular genetic defects in rhabdomyosarcoma with the underlying premise that understanding how the differentiation process has gone awry will lead to new treatment strategies aimed at promoting myogenic differentiation and concomitant cell cycle arrest.

Temporal microRNA expression during in vitro myogenic progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation: regulation of proliferation by miR-682

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate gene expression by repressing target genes at the posttranscriptional level. Since miRNAs have unique expression profiles in different tissues, they provide pivotal regulation of many biological processes. The present study defined miRNA expression during murine myogenic progenitor cell (MPC) proliferation and differentiation to identify miRNAs involved in muscle regeneration. Muscle-related gene expression analyses revealed that the time course and expression of myosin heavy chain (MHC) and transcription factors (Myf5, MyoD, myogenin, and Pax7) were similar during in vitro MPC proliferation/differentiation and in vivo muscle regeneration. Comprehensive profiling revealed that 139 or 16 miRNAs were significantly changed more than twofold [false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.05] during MPC differentiation or proliferation, respectively; cluster analyses revealed five distinct patterns of miRNA expression during the time course of MPC differentiation. Not unexpectedly, the largest miRNA changes occurred in muscle-specific miRNAs (miR-1, -133a, and -499), which were upregulated >10-fold during MPC differentiation (FDR < 0.01). However, several previously unreported miRNAs were differentially expressed, including miR-10b, -335-3p, and -682. Interestingly, the temporal patterns of miR-1, -499, and -682 expression during in vitro MPC proliferation/differentiation were remarkably similar to those observed during in vivo muscle regeneration. Moreover, in vitro inhibition of miR-682, the only miRNA upregulated in proliferating compared with quiescent MPC, led to decreased MPC proliferation, further validating our in vitro assay system for the identification of miRNAs involved in muscle regeneration. Thus the differentially expressed miRNAs identified in the present study could represent new regulatory elements in MPC proliferation and differentiation.

Keeping an eye on retinoblastoma control of human embryonic stem cells

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) hold great promise in regenerative medicine. However, before the full potential of these cells is achieved, major basic biological questions need to be addressed. In particular, there are still gaps in our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying the derivation of hESCs from blastocysts, the regulation of the undifferentiated, pluripotent state, and the control of differentiation into specific lineages. Furthermore, we still do not fully understand the tumorigenic potential of hESCs, limiting their use in regenerative medicine. The RB pathway is a key signaling module that controls cellular proliferation, cell survival, chromatin structure, and cellular differentiation in mammalian cells. Members of the RB pathway are important regulators of hESC biology and manipulation of the activity of this pathway may provide novel means to control the fate of hESCs. Here we review what is known about the expression and function of members of the RB pathway in hESCs and discuss areas of interest in this field.

Expression of myocyte enhancer factor-2 and downstream genes in ground squirrel skeletal muscle during hibernation

Myocyte enhancer factor-2 (MEF2) transcription factors regulate the expression of a variety of genes encoding contractile proteins and other proteins associated with muscle performance. We proposed that changes in MEF2 levels and expression of selected downstream targets would aid the skeletal muscle of thirteen-lined ground squirrels (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) in meeting metabolic challenges associated with winter hibernation; e.g., cycles of torpor-arousal, body temperature that can fall to near 0°C, long periods of inactivity that could lead to atrophy. MEF2A protein levels were significantly elevated when animals were in torpor (maximally 2.8-fold higher than in active squirrels) and the amount of phosphorylated active MEF2A Thr312 increased during entrance into torpor. MEF2C levels also rose significantly during entrance and torpor as did the amount of phosphorylated MEF2C Ser387. Furthermore, both MEF2 members showed elevated amounts in the nuclear fraction during torpor as well as enhanced binding to DNA indicating that MEF2-mediated gene expression was up-regulated in torpid animals. Indeed, the protein products of two MEF2 downstream gene targets increased in muscle during torpor (glucose transporter isoforms 4; GLUT4) or early arousal (myogenic differentiation; MyoD). Significant increases in Glut4 and MyoD mRNA transcript levels correlated with the rise in protein product levels and provided further support for the activation of MEF2-mediated gene expression in the hibernator. Transcript levels of Mef2a and Mef2c also showed time-dependent patterns with levels of both being highest during arousal from torpor. The data suggest a significant role for MEF2-mediated gene transcription in the selective adjustment of muscle protein complement over the course of torpor-arousal cycles.

Dosage-sensitive function of retinoblastoma related and convergent epigenetic control are required during the Arabidopsis life cycle

The plant life cycle alternates between two distinct multi-cellular generations, the reduced gametophytes and the dominant sporophyte. Little is known about how generation-specific cell fate, differentiation, and development are controlled by the core regulators of the cell cycle. In Arabidopsis, RETINOBLASTOMA RELATED (RBR), an evolutionarily ancient cell cycle regulator, controls cell proliferation, differentiation, and regulation of a subset of Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) genes and METHYLTRANSFERASE 1 (MET1) in the male and female gametophytes, as well as cell fate establishment in the male gametophyte. Here we demonstrate that RBR is also essential for cell fate determination in the female gametophyte, as revealed by loss of cell-specific marker expression in all the gametophytic cells that lack RBR. Maintenance of genome integrity also requires RBR, because diploid plants heterozygous for rbr (rbr/RBR) produce an abnormal portion of triploid offspring, likely due to gametic genome duplication. While the sporophyte of the diploid mutant plants phenocopied wild type due to the haplosufficiency of RBR, genetic analysis of tetraploid plants triplex for rbr (rbr/rbr/rbr/RBR) revealed that RBR has a dosage-dependent pleiotropic effect on sporophytic development, trichome differentiation, and regulation of PRC2 subunit genes CURLY LEAF (CLF) and VERNALIZATION 2 (VRN2), and MET1 in leaves. There were, however, no obvious cell cycle and cell proliferation defects in these plant tissues, suggesting that a single functional RBR copy in tetraploids is capable of maintaining normal cell division but is not sufficient for distinct differentiation and developmental processes. Conversely, in leaves of mutants in sporophytic PRC2 subunits, trichome differentiation was also affected and expression of RBR and MET1 was reduced, providing evidence for a RBR-PRC2-MET1 regulatory feedback loop involved in sporophyte development. Together, dosage-sensitive RBR function and its genetic interaction with PRC2 genes and MET1 must have been recruited during plant evolution to control distinct generation-specific cell fate, differentiation, and development.

MicroRNA-214 promotes myogenic differentiation by facilitating exit from mitosis via down-regulation of proto-oncogene N-ras

Vertebrate muscle differentiation is coordinated by an intricate network of transcription factors requiring proliferating myogenic precursors to withdraw irreversibly from the cell cycle. Recent studies have implicated a large number of microRNAs exerting another layer of control in many aspects of muscle differentiation. By annealing to short recognition sequences in the 3'-untranslated region, microRNAs attenuate target gene expression through translation repression or mRNA degradation. Here, we show that miR-214 promotes myogenic differentiation in mouse C2C12 myoblasts at a step preceding the induction of p21 and myogenin. Blocking miR-214 function with a 2'-O-methylated double-stranded inhibitor maintained C2C12 cells in the active cell cycle, thereby inhibiting the myogenic differentiation. By global gene expression profiling, we identified the proto-oncogene N-ras as one of miR-214 targets. Furthermore, manipulating the N-Ras level with small interfering RNA or adenovirus-mediated forced expression either augmented or attenuated the effect of miR-214, respectively. Thus, our data uncovered a novel microRNA-mediated mechanism that controls myogenic differentiation.