Haplotype structures of the UGT1A gene complex in a Japanese population

Integrated analysis revealing a novel stemness-metabolism-related gene signature for predicting prognosis and immunotherapy response in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a malignant lethal tumor and both cancer stem cells (CSCs) and metabolism reprogramming have been proven to play indispensable roles in HCC. This study aimed to reveal the connection between metabolism reprogramming and the stemness characteristics of HCC, established a new gene signature related to stemness and metabolism and utilized it to assess HCC prognosis and immunotherapy response. The clinical information and gene expression profiles (GEPs) of 478 HCC patients came from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). The one-class logistic regression (OCLR) algorithm was employed to calculate the messenger ribonucleic acid expression-based stemness index (mRNAsi), a new stemness index quantifying stemness features. Differentially expressed analyses were done between high- and low-mRNAsi groups and 74 differentially expressed metabolism-related genes (DEMRGs) were identified with the help of metabolism-related gene sets from Molecular Signatures Database (MSigDB). After integrated analysis, a risk score model based on the three most efficient prognostic DEMRGs, including Recombinant Phosphofructokinase Platelet (PFKP), phosphodiesterase 2A (PDE2A) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A5 (UGT1A5) was constructed and HCC patients were divided into high-risk and low-risk groups. Significant differences were found in pathway enrichment, immune cell infiltration patterns, and gene alterations between the two groups. High-risk group patients tended to have worse clinical outcomes and were more likely to respond to immunotherapy. A stemness-metabolism-related model composed of gender, age, the risk score model and tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) staging was generated and showed great discrimination and strong ability in predicting HCC prognosis and immunotherapy response.

Bilirubin metabolism and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 variants in Asians: Pathogenic implications and therapeutic response

In the Asian general population, at least six single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) in the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1 gene have been identified: -3279T>G, -53A(TA)₆ TAA>A(TA)₇ TAA, 211G>A, 686C>A, 1091C>T, and 1456T>G. Each of these six SNVs was observed in at least four ethnic groups of the 12 Asian populations studied. In East Asian populations, the descending frequency of these six SNVs was as follows: -3279G>[-53A(TA)₇ TAA, 211A]>(686A, 1091T)>1456G. Because of the presence of linkage disequilibrium and the expulsion phenomenon, when the SNVs -3279G, -53A(TA)₇ TAA, 211A, and 686A were simultaneously involved, 15 instead of the estimated 81 genotypes were observed. Those carrying 686AA or 1456GG developed Gilbert's syndrome or Crigler-Najjar syndrome type 2. Both -53A(TA)₇ TAA/A(TA)₇ TAA and 211AA are the main causes of Gilbert's syndrome in East Asian populations. In East Asian populations, the 211AA genotype is the main cause of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia, whereas -53A(TA)₇ TAA/A(TA)₇ TAA exerts a protective effect on hyperbilirubinemia development in neonates fed with breast milk. Both 211A and -53A(TA)₇ TAA are significantly associated with adverse drug reactions induced by irinotecan (one of the most widely used anticancer agents) in Asians. However, at least three common SNVs (-3279G, -53A(TA)₇ TAA, and 211A) should be comprehensively analyzed. This study investigated the clinical significance of these six SNVs and demonstrated that examining UGT1A1 variants in Asian populations is considerably challenging.

Is dose modification or discontinuation of nilotinib necessary in nilotinib-induced hyperbilirubinemia?

Nilotinib is a specific breakpoint cluster region-Abelson leukemia virus-tyrosine kinase inhibitor that is used as an effective first- or second-line treatment in imatinib-resistant chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) patients. Hepatotoxicity due to nilotinib is a commonly reported side effect; however, abnormal liver function test (LFT) results have been reported in asymptomatic cases. When alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels are more than five-fold the upper limit of the normal (ULN) or when the serum total bilirubin level is more than three-fold the ULN, dose modification or discontinuation of nilotinib is recommended, resulting in decreased levels of hematological indicators in certain patients with CML. Nilotinib-induced hyperbilirubinemia typically manifests as indirect bilirubinemia without elevated ALT or AST levels. Such abnormal liver functioning is thus not attributed to the presence of a true histologic lesion of the liver. The underlying mechanism may be related to the inhibition of uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase activity. Therefore, nilotinib dose adjustment is not recommended for this type of hyperbilirubinemia, and in the absence of elevated liver enzyme levels or presence of abnormal LFT findings, physicians should consider maintaining nilotinib dose intensity without modifications.

Genetic polymorphisms in metabolic enzymes and transporters have no impact on mycophenolic acid pharmacokinetics in adult kidney transplant patients co-treated with tacrolimus: A population analysis

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE

Mycophenolate mofetil, an ester prodrug of mycophenolic acid (MPA), is widely used to prevent graft rejection after kidney transplantation. The pharmacokinetic (PK) of MPA has been extensively studied, which revealed a high degree of variability. An integrated population PK (PopPK) model of MPA and its main metabolite mycophenolic acid glucuronide (MPAG) was developed using the adult patients who underwent kidney transplant and were administered oral mycophenolate mofetil combined with tacrolimus.

METHODS

In total, 917 MPA and 740 MPAG concentrations in191 adult patients were analysed via nonlinear mixed-effects modelling. The concentration-time data were adequately described using a chain compartment model, including central and peripheral compartments for MPA and a central compartment for MPAG. Stepwise forward inclusion and backward elimination procedures were used to investigate the effects of genetic polymorphisms, including in UGT1A8, UGT1A9, UGT2B7, ABCB1, ABCC2, ABCG2, SLCO1B1, SLCO1B3, and HNF1α.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

These genetic polymorphisms in metabolic enzymes and transporters have no obvious impact on the PK of MPA in adult patients who underwent kidney transplant and were co-treated with tacrolimus. The post-transplant time, serum albumin, and creatinine clearance were identified as significant covariates affecting the PK of MPA and MPAG, which should be considered in the clinical use of mycophenolate mofetil.

WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION

We established a PopPK model of MPA and MPAG in Chinese adult patients who underwent kidney transplant and were co-treated with tacrolimus. Genetic polymorphisms in metabolic enzymes and transporters showed no obvious impact on MMF PK. A model-informed dosing strategy was proposed by the established model, and MMF dose adjustment should be based on ALB levels and the post-transplantation time.

Pharmacokinetics, Safety, and Tolerability of a Single Oral Dose of Abacavir/Dolutegravir/Lamivudine Combination Tablets in Healthy Japanese Study Participants

Pharmacokinetics, safety, and tolerability of abacavir 600 mg/dolutegravir 50 mg/lamivudine 300 mg were assessed in this phase 1, single‐arm, open‐label, single‐dose study in fasted healthy male (n = 4) and female (n = 8) participants of Japanese heritage. Participants received a single dose of abacavir 600 mg/dolutegravir 50 mg/lamivudine 300 mg after an 8‐hour fast, with safety assessments and blood samples for pharmacokinetic parameters collected through 72 hours after dosing. Geometric mean maximum plasma concentrations were 5.22 μg/mL (time to maximum concentration [t_max], 1.01 hours) for abacavir, 4.13 μg/mL (t_max, 3.50 hours) for dolutegravir, and 3.35 μg/mL (t_max, 2.98 hours) for lamivudine. Geometric mean area under the concentration‐time curve values were 18.20, 71.60, and 16.60 μg • h/mL for abacavir, dolutegravir, and lamivudine, respectively. No adverse events were reported, and no clinically significant findings were observed in laboratory values, physical examinations, or 12‐lead electrocardiographic parameters. Single‐tablet administration of abacavir 600 mg/dolutegravir 50 mg/lamivudine 300 mg was well tolerated in Japanese participants. Exposure to abacavir and lamivudine was comparable with that seen in previous studies. A modest increase in exposure to dolutegravir vs previous clinical studies was observed but is not expected to impact the clinical management of HIV‐1 or increase the risk for adverse events.

Pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid after haplo-hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in Japanese recipients

PURPOSE

Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), a mycophenolic acid (MPA) prodrug, is used to prevent graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Although previous studies have reported that enterohepatic circulation (EHC) of MPA, which is usually observed in MMF-treated patients, does not occur in HSCT patients, it is unclear what happens in haploidentical-HSCT (haplo-HSCT) patients, who are using post-transplant cyclophosphamide. This study was conducted to investigate MPA pharmacokinetics in haplo-HSCT patients.

METHODS

Seventeen haplo-HSCT patients, who received MMF for GVHD prophylaxis, were enrolled in this study. We collected blood samples on days 14 and 28, and plasma MPA concentrations were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography; pharmacokinetic parameters such as area under the curve (AUC), mean residence time (MRT), and apparent oral clearance (CL/F) were measured with moment analysis. We also evaluated EHC as AUC_6-12h/AUC_0-12h.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in MPA pharmacokinetic parameters between days 14 and 28. There was also no difference between the pharmacokinetic parameter changes and diarrhea. Additionally, varying plasma MPA concentrations suggested that MPA EHC did not occur.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we revealed the pharmacokinetics of MMF in Japanese haplo-HSCT recipients. Additionally, our study demonstrated that MPA EHC might not occur in Japanese haplo-HSCT recipients.

Impact of single-heterozygous UGT1A1 on the clinical outcomes of irinotecan monotherapy after fluoropyrimidine and platinum-based combination therapy for gastric cancer: a multicenter retrospective study

BACKGROUND

It is unclear whether the UGT1A1 status, single heterozygous (SH) or wild type (WT), is associated with the efficacy and toxicity of irinotecan monotherapy in advanced gastric cancer (AGC). We investigated the association between clinical outcomes (efficacy and safety) and UGT1A1 status in patients who received irinotecan monotherapy.

METHODS

We evaluated AGC patients who received irinotecan monotherapy between January 2011 and December 2017. Efficacy was assessed according to overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS). Toxicity was graded using the Common Toxicity Criteria for Adverse Events (version 4.0).

RESULTS

A total of 100 patients were evaluated (62 and 38 patients with UGT1A1 WT and SH, respectively). In the WT and SH groups, the irinotecan dose was reduced in 19 (30.6%) and 18 (47.2%) patients (p = 0.135), respectively; treatment was delayed due to adverse events (AEs) in 19 (30.6%) and 13 (34.2%) patients (p = 0.826), respectively; the median PFS was 3.15 and 3.25 months (HR, 0.734; 95% CI 0.465-1.158; p = 0.184), respectively; and the median OS was 10.4 and 7.26 months (HR, 1.137; 95% CI 0.752-1.721; p = 0.543), respectively. Severe hematological AEs (Grade ≥ 3) were significantly more frequent in the SH group than in the WT group (63% vs. 36%; p = 0.008), while severe non-hematological AEs was not significantly different (16.0% vs. 6.5%; p = 0.173).

CONCLUSION

There was no significant difference in the efficacy of irinotecan monotherapy between UGT1A1 WT and UGT1A1 SH, but UGT1A1 SH was associated with a high frequency of severe hematological toxicity.

Human variability in isoform-specific UDP-glucuronosyltransferases: markers of acute and chronic exposure, polymorphisms and uncertainty factors

UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) are involved in phase II conjugation reactions of xenobiotics and differences in their isoform activities result in interindividual kinetic differences of UGT probe substrates. Here, extensive literature searches were performed to identify probe substrates (14) for various UGT isoforms (UGT1A1, UGT1A3, UGT1A4, UGT1A6, UGT1A9, UGT2B7 and UGT2B15) and frequencies of human polymorphisms. Chemical-specific pharmacokinetic data were collected in a database to quantify interindividual differences in markers of acute (Cmax) and chronic (area under the curve, clearance) exposure. Using this database, UGT-related uncertainty factors were derived and compared to the default factor (i.e. 3.16) allowing for interindividual differences in kinetics. Overall, results show that pharmacokinetic data are predominantly available for Caucasian populations and scarce for other populations of different geographical ancestry. Furthermore, the relationships between UGT polymorphisms and pharmacokinetic parameters are rarely addressed in the included studies. The data show that UGT-related uncertainty factors were mostly below the default toxicokinetic uncertainty factor of 3.16, with the exception of five probe substrates (1-OH-midazolam, ezetimibe, raltegravir, SN38 and trifluoperazine), with three of these substrates being metabolised by the polymorphic isoform 1A1. Data gaps and future work to integrate UGT-related variability distributions with in vitro data to develop quantitative in vitro-in vivo extrapolations in chemical risk assessment are discussed.

Points-to-consider documents: Scientific information on the evaluation of genetic polymorphisms during non-clinical studies and phase I clinical trials in the Japanese population

Pharmacotherapy shows striking individual differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, involving drug efficacy and adverse reactions. Recent genetic research has revealed that genetic polymorphisms are important intrinsic factors for these inter-individual differences. This pharmacogenomic information could help develop safer and more effective precision pharmacotherapies and thus, regulatory guidance/guidelines were developed in this area, especially in the EU and US. The Project for the Promotion of Progressive Medicine, Medical Devices, and Regenerative Medicine by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, performed by Tohoku University, reported scientific information on the evaluation of genetic polymorphisms, mainly on drug metabolizing enzymes and transporters, during non-clinical studies and phase I clinical trials in Japanese subjects/patients. We anticipate that this paper will be helpful in drug development for the regulatory usage of pharmacogenomic information, most notably pharmacokinetics.

Population pharmacokinetics and Bayesian estimation of mycophenolic acid concentrations in Chinese adult renal transplant recipients

Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is an important immunosuppressant used in renal transplantation, and mycophenolic acid (MPA) is the active component released from the ester prodrug MMF. The objective of this study was to investigate the population pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid (MPA) following oral administration of MMF in Chinese adult renal transplant recipients and to identify factors that explain MPA pharmacokinetic variability. Pharmacokinetic data for MPA and covariate information were retrospectively collected from 118 patients (79 patients were assigned to the group for building the population pharmacokinetic model, while 39 patients were assigned to the validation group). Population pharmacokinetic data analysis was performed using the NONMEM software. The pharmacokinetics of MPA was best described by a two-compartment model with a first-order absorption rate with no lag time. Body weight and serum creatinine level were positively correlated with apparent clearance (CL/F). The polymorphism in uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase gene, UGT2B7, significantly explained the interindividual variability in the initial volume of distribution (V₁/F). The estimated population parameters (and interindividual variability) were CL/F 18.3 L/h (34.2%) and V₁/F 27.9 L (21.3%). The interoccasion variability was 13.7%. These population pharmacokinetic data have significant clinical value for the individualization of MMF therapy in Chinese adult renal transplant patients.

Impact of UGT1A1 gene polymorphisms on plasma dolutegravir trough concentrations and neuropsychiatric adverse events in Japanese individuals infected with HIV-1

Background

Dolutegravir (DTG) is metabolized mainly by uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1), and partly by cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A). Therefore, we focused on UGT1A1 gene polymorphisms (*6 and *28) in Japanese individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 to examine the relationship between their plasma trough concentration of DTG and gene polymorphisms. Recently, neuropsychiatric adverse events (NP-AEs) after the use of DTG have become a concern, so the association between UGT1A1 gene polymorphisms and selected NP-AEs was also investigated.

Methods

The study subjects were 107 Japanese patients with HIV-1 infections who were receiving DTG. Five symptoms (dizziness, headache, insomnia, restlessness, and anxiety) were selected as NP-AEs. The subjects were classified by their UGT1A1 gene polymorphisms for the group comparison of DTG trough concentration and the presence or absence of NP-AEs.

Results

The subjects consisted of eight (7%) *6 homozygotes, three (3%) *28 homozygotes, four (4%) for *6/*28 compound heterozygotes, 23 (21%) *6 heterozygotes, 18 (17%) *28 heterozygotes, and 51 (48%) patients carrying the normal allele. The plasma DTG trough concentration of the *6 homozygous patients was significantly higher than that of the patients carrying the normal allele (median, 1.43 and 0.82 μg/mL, respectively, p = 0.0054). The *6 and *28 heterozygous patients also showed significantly higher values than those shown by patients with the normal allele. Multivariate analysis revealed that carrying one or two UGT1A1*6 gene polymorphisms, one UGT1A1*28 polymorphism, and age of < 40 years were independent factors associated with high DTG trough concentrations. The median DTG trough concentration was significantly higher in the patients with NP-AEs (1.31 μg/mL) than in those without NP-AEs (1.01 μg/mL). Consistent with these results, subjects carrying UGT1A1*6, UGT1A1*28, or both alleles showed a higher cumulative incidence of having selected NP-AEs than those carrying the normal alleles (p = 0.0454).

Conclusion

In addition to younger age, carrying UGT1A1*6 and/or UGT1A1*28 was demonstrated to be a factor associated with high DTG trough concentrations. Our results also suggest a relationship between plasma DTG trough concentrations and NP-AEs, and that carrying UGT1A1*6 and/or UGT1A1*28 alleles might be a risk factor for NP-AEs.

Therapeutic drug monitoring of imatinib, nilotinib, and dasatinib for patients with chronic myeloid leukemia

Imatinib, nilotinib, and dasatinib are tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) that have become first-line treatments for Philadelphia chromosome-positive chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). According to European LeukemiaNet recommendations, the clinical response of CML patients receiving TKI therapy should be evaluated after 3, 6, and 12 months. For patients not achieving a satisfactory response within 3 months, the mean plasma concentration for the three months of TKI administration must be considered. In TKI therapy for CML patients, therapeutic drug monitoring is a new strategy for dosage optimization to obtain a faster and more effective clinical response. The imatinib plasma trough concentration (C₀) should be set above 1000 ng/mL to obtain a response and below 3000 ng/mL to avoid serious adverse events such as neutropenia. For patients with a UGT1A1*6/*6, *6/*28, or *28/*28 genotype initially administered 300-400 mg/d, a target nilotinib C₀ of 500 ng/mL is recommended to prevent elevation of bilirubin levels, whereas for patients with the UGT1A1*1 allele initially administered 600 mg/d, a target nilotinib C₀ of 800 ng/mL is recommended. For dasatinib, it is recommended that a higher Cmax or C₂ (above 50 ng/mL) to obtain a clinical response and a lower C₀ (less than 2.5 ng/mL) to avoid pleural effusion be maintained by once daily administration of dasatinib. Although at present clinicians consider the next pharmacotherapy from clinical responses (efficacy/toxicity) obtained by a fixed dosage of TKI, the TKI dosage should be adjusted based on target plasma concentrations to maximize the efficacy and to minimize the incidence of adverse events.

Correlation between UGT1A1 polymorphisms and raltegravir plasma trough concentrations in Japanese HIV-1-infected patients

Raltegravir (RAL), an HIV integrase inhibitor, is metabolized mainly by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1). Polymorphisms in UGT1A1 may cause alterations in the pharmacodynamics of RAL, which is taken twice daily with no dietary restrictions. We compared the effect of two polymorphic alleles in this gene, UGT1A1*6 and UGT1A1*28 on plasma RAL concentrations in Japanese HIV-1-infected patients. Of 114 Japanese HIV-1-infected patients who received RAL, the frequencies of UGT1A1*6 and UGT1A1*28 were 18% and 13%, respectively. The percentage of homozygotes for UGT1A1*6 and UGT1A1*28 was 6% and 4%, respectively, the percentage of compound heterozygotes for UGT1A1*6 and UGT1A1*28 was 2%, and that of heterozygotes for UGT1A1*6 and UGT1A1*28 was 22% and 17%, respectively. RAL plasma trough concentrations were compared for each polymorphism. Significantly higher levels of RAL were observed with patients who were homozygous for UGT1A1*6 (median: 1.0 μg/mL) than for the normal allele (median: 0.11 μg/mL; p = 0.021). Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the presence of one or two alleles of UGT1A1*6 or two alleles of UGT1A1*28 were independent factors associated with high RAL plasma trough concentrations (≥ 0.17 μg/mL). These results indicated that UGT1A1*6 and UGT1A1*28 are both factors influencing the RAL plasma trough concentrations in Japanese HIV-1-infected patients.

Differences in UGT1A1, UGT1A7, and UGT1A9 polymorphisms between Uzbek and Japanese populations

Background and Objectives

Uridine-diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase 1A (UGT1A) is a key enzyme involved in irinotecan metabolism, and polymorphisms in the UGT1A gene are associated with irinotecan-induced toxicity. The aim of this study was to elucidate the allele frequencies of UGT1A polymorphisms in healthy Uzbek volunteers, and to compare them with those of the Japanese population.

Method

A total of 97 healthy volunteers from Uzbekistan were enrolled and blood samples were collected from each participant. Genotyping analysis was performed by fragment size analysis for UGT1A1*28, direct sequencing for UGT1A7*3 and UGT1A9*22, and TaqMan assays for UGT1A1*93, UGT1A1*6, UGT1A1*27, UGT1A1*60, and UGT1A7*12. The frequencies of polymorphisms were compared with the Japanese population by using the data previously reported from our study group.

Results

When the Uzbek and Japanese populations were compared, heterozygotes or homozygotes for UGT1A1*28, UGT1A1*60, and UGT1A1*93 were significantly more frequent in the Uzbek population (P < 0.01). The rate of UGT1A7*12 was not significantly different between the two populations, whereas UGT1A1*6 and UGT1A9*22 were significantly less frequent in the Uzbek population (P < 0.05). UGT1A7*1 were less prevalent in the Uzbek population than in the Japanese population (P < 0.01).

Conclusion

The Uzbek population has different frequencies of polymorphisms in UGT1A genes compared with the Japanese population. A comprehensive study of the influence of UGT1A1 polymorphisms on the risk of irinotecan-induced toxicity is necessary for optimal use of irinotecan treatment.

Population pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid and its main glucuronide metabolite: a comparison between healthy Chinese and Caucasian subjects receiving mycophenolate mofetil

PURPOSE

Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), a prodrug of the immunosuppressive agent mycophenolic acid (MPA), is widely used for prophylaxis of solid organ transplant rejection. MPA is primarily metabolized to 7-O-mycophenolic acid glucuronide (MPAG), an inactive metabolite that undergoes enterohepatic recirculation (EHC). This study assessed ethnic differences in the pharmacokinetics (PK) of MPA and MPAG between healthy Chinese and Caucasian subjects using population PK analysis.

METHODS

Data were pooled from 132 healthy subjects (80 Chinese, 52 Caucasians) in eight clinical studies in which MMF was administered in a single oral dose. Population PK analysis was performed using NONMEM®.

RESULTS

The PK of MPA and MPAG were best described by a five-chain compartment model, including a gallbladder compartment for EHC and a transit absorption model. Ethnicity was significantly correlated with the apparent clearance (CL/F) and volume of distribution (V/F) of MPAG but not those of MPA. Weight was identified as a covariate and was correlated with the PK of MPA and MPAG. MPA CL/F was 11.5 L/h for a 70-kg healthy subject, and the MPAG CL/F values were 1.36 and 1.90 L/h for 70-kg Chinese and Caucasian individuals, respectively. Internal and external evaluation indicated model validity.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first population PK analysis to evaluate ethnic differences in the PK of MPA and MPAG in healthy Chinese and Caucasian subjects. No differences were observed in the PK of MPA between healthy Chinese and Caucasian subjects. Although, the MPAG CL/F was approximately 40 % higher in Caucasians, this finding may not be clinically relevant.

Association analysis of UGT1A genotype and haplotype with SN-38 glucuronidation in human livers

AIM

7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN-38), the active metabolite of irinotecan, is mainly eliminated hepatically through glucuronidation by UGT1A1 and UGT1A9 enzymes. This study comprehensively investigates the effects of UGT1A1 and UGT1A9 genetic polymorphism on SN-38 glucuronidation activity.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Genetic polymorphisms and combinational haplotypes of UGT1A1 and UGT1A9, SN-38 glucuronidation activities, and protein levels of UGT1A1 and UGT1A9 were determined using a set of over 45 Chinese livers.

RESULTS

UGT1A1 reduced function variants UGT1A1*6, *28, *60 and *1B exhibited additive effect. The number of UGT1A1 reduced function alleles was associated with decreased SN-38G formation rates and UGT1A protein levels. UGT1A9 I399C>T and UGT1A9*1b, which were highly linked, were associated with increased SN-38 glucuronidation activity and UGT1A protein levels. However, further analysis based on UGT1A9-1A1 haplotypes confirmed that their increased effect was partly due to their close linkage with UGT1A1 reduced function alleles.

CONCLUSION

UGT1A1 genetic polymorphisms have a more important function in human liver SN-38 glucuronidation activity than UGT1A9. Original submitted 7 November 2013; Revision submitted 30 January 2014.

Influence of UGT1A1 6, 27, and 28 polymorphisms on nilotinib-induced hyperbilirubinemia in Japanese patients with chronic myeloid leukemia

Nilotinib potently inhibits human uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT1A1) activity, causing hyperbilirubinemia. We investigated the influence of UGT1A1 polymorphisms and nilotinib plasma trough concentrations (C0) on nilotinib-induced hyperbilirubinemia in 34 Japanese patients with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). The proportion of patients with hyperbilirubinemia was significantly higher among patients with the UGT1A1*6/*6 and *6/*28 genotypes (poor metabolizers) than among those with other genotypes (p = 0.004). The median time to elevation of bilirubin levels in UGT1A1 poor metabolizers was 2.0 weeks (hazard ratio, 6.11). The median time to reduction in nilotinib dose in UGT1A1 poor metabolizers was 4.0 weeks (hazard ratio, 7.52; p = 0.002). Consequently, in the maintenance phase 3 months following the initiation of nilotinib therapy, the median daily dose and C0 of nilotinib were 350 mg/day and 372 ng/mL, respectively, in UGT1A1 poor metabolizers, and 600 mg/day and 804 ng/mL, respectively, in the other patients. Patients at increased hyperbilirubinemia risk could be identified by prospective UGT1A1 genotyping prior to nilotinib therapy. To avoid an interruption of CML treatment due to nilotinib-induced hyperbilirubinemia, it may be beneficial to reduce the initial nilotinib dose to 300-400 mg/day for UGT1A1 poor metabolizers.

Characterization of the zebrafish Ugt repertoire reveals a new class of drug-metabolizing UDP glucuronosyltransferases

The zebrafish genome contains a gene superfamily of 40 Ugt genes that can be divided into Ugt1, Ugt2, and Ugt5 families. Because the encoded zebrafish UDP glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) proteins do not display orthologous relationships to any of the mammalian and avian UGT enzymes based on molecular phylogeny, it is difficult to predict their substrate specificity. Here, we mapped their tissue-specific expression patterns. We showed that the zebrafish UGT enzymes can be glycosylated. We determined their substrate specificity and catalytic activity toward diverse aglycone substrates. Specifically, we measured mRNA levels of each of the 40 zebrafish Ugt genes in 11 adult tissues and found that they are expressed in a tissue-specific manner. Moreover, functional analyses with the donor of UDP glucuronic acid (UDPGA) for each of the 40 zebrafish UGT proteins revealed their substrate specificity toward 10 important aglycones. In particular, UGT1A1, UGT1A7, and UGT1B1 displayed good glucuronidation activities toward most phenolic aglycones (4-methylumbelliferone, 4-nitrophenol, 1-naphthol, bisphenol A, and mycophenolic acid) and the two carboxylic acids (bilirubin and diclofenac). Importantly, some members of the UGT5, a novel UGT family identified recently, are capable of glucuronidating multiple aglycones with the donor cofactor of UDPGA. In particular, UGT5A5, UGT5B2, and UGT5E1 glucuronidate phenols and steroids with high specificity toward steroid hormones of estradiol and testosterone and estrogenic alkylphenols 4-tert-octylphenol. These results shed new insights into the mechanisms by which fish species defend themselves against vast numbers of xenobiotics via glucuronidation conjugations and may facilitate the establishment of zebrafish as a model vertebrate in toxicological, developmental, and pathologic studies.

Distribution of selected gene polymorphisms of UGT1A1 in a Saudi population

INTRODUCTION

Glucuronidation is an important phase II pathway responsible for the metabolism of many endogenous substances and drugs to less toxic metabolites, which undergo renal excretion. The aim of the current work was to evaluate genotype and allele frequencies of certain UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1) variants in an Arab population.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Genomic DNA was isolated from 192 healthy unrelated Saudi males of various geographic regions and genotyping of UGT1A1*6, *27, *36, *28, *37, and *60 was carried out using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification followed by direct sequencing.

RESULTS

The most common allele for (TA) repeats was the wild type (TA)6 with a frequency of 74.3% followed by the mutant (TA)7 (i.e., UGT1A1*28) with a frequency of 25.7%. The distribution of UGT1A1*60 allele was 62.4% among subjects with the homozygous mutant genotype of 35.4%, while the wild type variant represents 10.6% only. Both UGT1A1*6 and *27 were not detected as all screened subjects showed a homozygous wild type pattern. Similarly, UGT1A1*36* and *37 were either not present or rarely found, respectively. In comparison to other populations, the frequency of UGT1A1*60 and *28 in the studied population was less than that of African Americans but higher than Asians. The geographical origin of the study subjects also implied some differences in genotype distribution of (TA) repeats and UGT1A1*60.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that Saudis harbor some important UGT1A1 mutations known to affect enzyme activity. Additional studies are warranted to assess the clinical implications of these gene polymorphisms in this ethnic group.

Polymorphic expression of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase UGTlA gene in human colorectal cancer

Background

Polymorphism of genes encoding drug-metabolizing enzymes is known to play an important role in increased susceptibility of colorectal cancer. UGT1A gene locus has been suggested to define tissue-specific glucuronidation activity. Reduced capacity of glucuronidation is correlated with the development of colorectal cancer. Therefore, we sought to explore polymorphism of UGTlA gene in human colorectal cancer.

Methods

Cancerous and healthy tissues were obtained from selectedpatients. Blood samples were collected and UGTlA mRNA transcriptions were analyzed. Genomic DNA was prepared and UGTlA8 exon-1 sequences were amplified, visualized and purified. The extracted DNA was subcloned and sequenced. Two-tailed Fisher's exact test, Odds ratios (ORs), confidence interval (CIs) and Logistics Regression Analysis were used for statistical analysis.

Results

UGTlA mRNA expression was reduced in cancerous tissues compared with healthy tissues from the same patient . The UGTlA mRNA expression of healthy tissue in study patients was lower than control . The mRNA expression of cancerous tissue was down-regulated in UGTlAl, 1A3, 1A4, lA6, 1A9 and up-regulated in UGTlA8 and UGTlAl0 UGT1A5 and UGT1A7 were not expressed in colonic tissue of either group. The allele frequency of WT UGTlA8*1 was higher (p = 0.000), frequency of UGTlA8*3 was lowered in control group (p = 0.000). The expression of homozygous UGTlA8*1 was higher in control group (p = 0.000). Higher frequency of both heterozygous UGTlA8*1/*3 and UGTlA8*2/*3 were found in study group (p = 0.000; p = 0.000). The occurrence of colorectal cancer was mainly related to the presence of polymorphic UGTlA8*3 alleles (p = 0.000).

Conclusion

Regulation of human UGT1A genes is tissue-specific. Individual variation in polymorphic expressions of UGTlA gene locus was noted in all types of colonic tissue tested, whereas hepatic tissue expression was uniform. The high incidence of UGTlA8 polymorphism exists in colorectal cancer patients. UGTlA8*1 allele is a protective factor and UGTlA8*3 allele is a risk factor.

The UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A polymorphism c.2042C>G (rs8330) is associated with increased human liver acetaminophen glucuronidation, increased UGT1A exon 5a/5b splice variant mRNA ratio, and decreased risk of unintentional acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure

Acetaminophen is cleared primarily by hepatic glucuronidation. Polymorphisms in genes encoding the acetaminophen UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes could explain interindividual variability in acetaminophen glucuronidation and variable risk for liver injury after acetaminophen overdose. In this study, human liver bank samples were phenotyped for acetaminophen glucuronidation activity and genotyped for the major acetaminophen-glucuronidating enzymes (UGTs 1A1, 1A6, 1A9, and 2B15). Of these, only three linked single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located in the shared UGT1A-3'UTR region (rs10929303, rs1042640, rs8330) were associated with acetaminophen glucuronidation activity, with rs8330 consistently showing higher acetaminophen glucuronidation at all the tested concentrations of acetaminophen. Mechanistic studies using luciferase-UGT1A-3'UTR reporters indicated that these SNPs do not alter mRNA stability or translation efficiency. However, there was evidence for allelic imbalance and a gene-dose proportional increase in the amount of exon 5a versus exon 5b containing UGT1A mRNA spliced transcripts in livers with the rs8330 variant allele. Cotransfection studies demonstrated an inhibitory effect of exon 5b containing cDNAs on acetaminophen glucuronidation by UGT1A1 and UGT1A6 cDNAs containing exon 5a. In silico analysis predicted that rs8330 creates an exon splice enhancer site that could favor exon 5a (over exon 5b) utilization during splicing. Finally, the prevalence of rs8330 was significantly lower (P = 0.027, χ(2) test) in patients who had acute liver failure from unintentional acetaminophen overdose compared with patients with acute liver failure from other causes or a race- or ethnicity-matched population. Together, these findings suggest that rs8330 is an important determinant of acetaminophen glucuronidation and could affect an individual's risk for acetaminophen-induced liver injury.

Comprehensive analysis of UGT1A1 genetic polymorphisms in Chinese Tibetan and Han populations

The study of polymorphism of the UGT1A1 gene has not been reported in the Chinese Tibetan population, and there are no comparisons of genetic polymorphism in the gene between Chinese Han and Tibetan populations. In this study, we directly sequenced the functional regions of the UGT1A1 gene in 200 unrelated healthy Chinese volunteers, detecting 20 variations (including five novel ones). The distributions of allele and genotype frequencies differ between the two groups. UGT1A1*6 is the major reduced functional variant in the populations, and the *27 allele was detected only in the Han group. Differences in the frequencies of the UGT1A1*6/*63 genotype between the Tibetan and Han populations were statistically significant (P = 0.009). Our genetic data might provide fundamental information for the advance of personalized medicine and will facilitate genotype-phenotype studies in larger populations.

UGT1A6 polymorphisms modulated lung cancer risk in a Chinese population

Uridine diphosphoglucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) 1A6 is the only UGT1A isoform expressed in lung tissue. It is responsible for the detoxification of carcinogens such as benezo[a]pyrene from cigarette smoke. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association of UGT1A6 polymorphisms and haplotypes with lung cancer risk and to evaluate the functional significance of UGT1A6 polymorphisms. Genomic DNA was isolated from leukocytes. Eight UGT1A6 polymorphisms were sequenced in a test set of 72 Chinese lung cancer patients and 62 healthy controls. Potential risk modifying alleles were validated in a separate set of 95 Chinese lung cancer patients and 100 healthy controls. UGT1A6 19T>G, 541A>G and 552A>C showed significant association with increased lung cancer risk, while UGT1A6 105C>T and IVS1+130G>T were significantly associated with reduced lung cancer risk. Multivariate logistic regression analysis demonstrated a significant association of lung cancer with UGT1A6 541A>G (OR: 3.582, 95% CI: 1.27–10.04, p = 0.015), 552A>C (OR: 5.364, 95% CI: 1.92–14.96, p = 0.001) and IVS1+130G>T (OR: 0.191, 95% CI: 0.09–0.36, p<0.001). Functional test demonstrated that UGT1A6 105C>T increased mRNA stability, providing a plausible explanation of its association with reduced lung cancer risk. Thus UGT1A6 polymorphisms may be used to identify people with increased risk of developing lung cancer.

Genetic variants and haplotypes of the UGT1A9, 1A7 and 1A1 genes in Chinese Han

In this report, we describe combined polymorphisms of the UGT1A9, UGT1A7 and UGT1A1 genes in 100 unrelated, healthy Chinese Han subjects. The functional regions of these genes were sequenced and comprehensively analyzed for genetic polymorphisms. Thirty variants were detected, including five novel forms. Tentative functional predictions indicated that a Cys → Arg substitution at position 277 in the UGT1A7 gene could alter the protein conformation and that 12460T > G in the 3′UTR might influence protein translation through specifically expressed miRNAs. UGT1A9*1b was a major functional variant in the subjects examined whereas the *1f allele had a frequency of only 0.5%. A special functional haplotype (GAGAAC) was identified for UGT1A9, 1A7 and 1A1. These findings provide fundamental genetic information that may serve as a basis for larger studies designed to assess the metabolic phenotypes associated with UGT1A polymorphisms. They also provide important data for the implementation of personalized medicine in Chinese Han.

Genetic variations and haplotype diversity of the UGT1 gene cluster in the Chinese population

Vertebrates require tremendous molecular diversity to defend against numerous small hydrophobic chemicals. UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) are a large family of detoxification enzymes that glucuronidate xenobiotics and endobiotics, facilitating their excretion from the body. The UGT1 gene cluster contains a tandem array of variable first exons, each preceded by a specific promoter, and a common set of downstream constant exons, similar to the genomic organization of the protocadherin (Pcdh), immunoglobulin, and T-cell receptor gene clusters. To assist pharmacogenomics studies in Chinese, we sequenced nine first exons, promoter and intronic regions, and five common exons of the UGT1 gene cluster in a population sample of 253 unrelated Chinese individuals. We identified 101 polymorphisms and found 15 novel SNPs. We then computed allele frequencies for each polymorphism and reconstructed their linkage disequilibrium (LD) map. The UGT1 cluster can be divided into five linkage blocks: Block 9 (UGT1A9), Block 9/7/6 (UGT1A9, UGT1A7, and UGT1A6), Block 5 (UGT1A5), Block 4/3 (UGT1A4 and UGT1A3), and Block 3′ UTR. Furthermore, we inferred haplotypes and selected their tagSNPs. Finally, comparing our data with those of three other populations of the HapMap project revealed ethnic specificity of the UGT1 genetic diversity in Chinese. These findings have important implications for future molecular genetic studies of the UGT1 gene cluster as well as for personalized medical therapies in Chinese.

UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A4 (UGT1A4) polymorphisms in a Jordanian population

Glucuronidation is one of the most important phase II metabolic pathways. It is catalyzed by a family of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes (UGTs). One of the subfamilies is UGT1A. Allele frequencies in UGT1A4 differ among ethnic groups. The aim of this study was to determine the allelic frequency of two most common defective alleles: UGT1A4*2 and UGT1A4*3 in a Jordanian population. A total of 216 healthy Jordanian Volunteers (165 males and 51 females) were included in this study. Genotyping for UGT1A4*1, UGT1A4*2 and UGT1A4*3 was done using a well established polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism test. Among 216 random individuals studied for UGT1A4*2 mutation there were 26 individuals who were heterozygous, giving a prevalence of 12% and an allele frequency of 6.5%. Only one individual was homozygous for UGT1A4*2. The UGT1A4*3 mutation was detected as heterozygous in 9 of 216 individuals indicating a prevalence of 4.2% and allele frequency of 3.5%. Three individuals were homozygous for the UGT1A4*3 indicating a prevalence of 1.4%. The prevalence of UGT1A4*2 is similar to the Caucasians but different from other populations whilst the UGT1A4*3 prevalence in the Jordanian population is distinct from other populations. Our results provide useful information for the Jordanian population and for future genotyping of Arab populations in general.

Mapping of the UGT1A locus identifies an uncommon coding variant that affects mRNA expression and protects from bladder cancer

A recent genome-wide association study of bladder cancer identified the UGT1A gene cluster on chromosome 2q37.1 as a novel susceptibility locus. The UGT1A cluster encodes a family of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), which facilitate cellular detoxification and removal of aromatic amines. Bioactivated forms of aromatic amines found in tobacco smoke and industrial chemicals are the main risk factors for bladder cancer. The association within the UGT1A locus was detected by a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs11892031. Now, we performed detailed resequencing, imputation and genotyping in this region. We clarified the original genetic association detected by rs11892031 and identified an uncommon SNP rs17863783 that explained and strengthened the association in this region (allele frequency 0.014 in 4035 cases and 0.025 in 5284 controls, OR = 0.55, 95%CI = 0.44-0.69, P = 3.3 × 10(-7)). Rs17863783 is a synonymous coding variant Val209Val within the functional UGT1A6.1 splicing form, strongly expressed in the liver, kidney and bladder. We found the protective T allele of rs17863783 to be associated with increased mRNA expression of UGT1A6.1 in in-vitro exontrap assays and in human liver tissue samples. We suggest that rs17863783 may protect from bladder cancer by increasing the removal of carcinogens from bladder epithelium by the UGT1A6.1 protein. Our study shows an example of genetic and functional role of an uncommon protective genetic variant in a complex human disease, such as bladder cancer.

The association of the UGT1A8, SLCO1B3 and ABCC2/ABCG2 genetic polymorphisms with the pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid and its phenolic glucuronide metabolite in Chinese individuals

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of UGT1A8*2, SLCO1B3 T334G, ABCC2 C-24T and ABCG2 C421A polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics (PKs) of mycophenolic acid (MPA) and its phenolic glucuronide (MPAG) in healthy Chinese volunteers and in stable renal transplant patients.

METHODS

The data were extracted from comparative bioavailability studies conducted in 42 healthy individuals and 37 renal transplant patients. A complete PK profile was obtained over 48 h for healthy volunteers and over 12h for the transplant patients. The MPA/MPAG plasma concentrations were measured by HPLC. The genotypes were determined using either the Taqman probe technique or direct sequencing. A multivariate analysis was used to assess the effect of the genotypes (UGT1A8*2, SLCO1B3 T334G, ABCC2 C-24T and ABCG2 C421A) and other covariates (age, weight, height, calculated creatinine clearance, serum albumin, haemoglobin and drug comedication) on the AUC(4-12) and AUC(0-12) for MPA and MPAG in the healthy volunteers and patients.

RESULTS

In the healthy volunteers, the dose-adjusted geometric means (GM) of the MPA AUC(4-12) in individuals with the SLCO1B3 334T allele were 30.4% lower than those values in the 334G homozygote carriers (P<0.05); in the transplant patients, the steroid dose was associated with a negative effect on the AUC of MPAG (P<0.03) and weight was associated with a negative effect on the AUC for MPA in the healthy volunteers and patients (P<0.03). No other significant effect of genotype or of the other studied variables on AUC(4-12) or AUC(0-12) of MPA/MPAG was found in the healthy volunteers or patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The PKs of MPA is affected by the SLCO1B3 polymorphism in healthy Chinese individuals. The absence of an effect of SLCO1B3 polymorphisms in transplant patients may be due to the co-administration of cyclosporine (CsA). Concomitant steroid dose and weight are two important covariates of the AUC of MPA and MPAG, which should be taken into account in clinical use. Further confirmatory in vivo studies are needed.

Population differences in major functional polymorphisms of pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics-related genes in Eastern Asians and Europeans: implications in the clinical trials for novel drug development

Drug lag, recently discussed extensively in Japan, can be divided into two phases: clinical development time and application review time. The former factor is still an important problem that might be improved by promoting multi-regional clinical trials and considering the results from other similar populations with Japanese, such as Koreans and Chinese. In this review, we compare the allelic or genotype frequencies of 30 relatively common functional alleles mainly between Eastern Asians and Europeans as well as among 3 major populations in Eastern Asian countries, Japan, Korea, and China, in 12 pharmacokinetics (PK)/pharmacodynamics (PD)-related genes; CYP2C9 (*2 and *3), CYP2C19 (*2, *3 and *17), 13 CYP2D6 haplotypes including *4, *5 and *10, CYP3A5 (*3), UGT1A1 (*28 and *6), NAT2 (*5, *6 and *7), GSTM1 and GSTT1 null genotypes, SLCO1B1 521T>C, ABCG2 421C>A, and HLA-A*31:01 and HLA-B*58:01. In this review, differences in allele frequencies (AFs) or genotype frequencies (GFs) less than 0.1 (in the cases of highest AF (GF) ≥0.1) or less than 0.05 (in the cases of lowest AF (GF) <0.1) were regarded as similar. Between Eastern Asians and Europeans, AFs (or GFs) are regarded as being different for many alleles such as CYP2C9 (*2), CYP2C19 (*2, *3 and *17), CYP2D6 (*4 and *10), CYP3A5 (*3), UGT1A1 (*28 and *6), NAT2 (*5*7), GSTT1 null and ABCG2 421C>A. Among the 3 Eastern Asian populations, however, only AFs of CYP2C19*3, CYP2D6*10, HLA-A*31:01 and HLA-B*58:01 are regarded as dissimilar. For CYP2C19*3, the total functional impact on CYP2C19 could be small if the frequencies of the two null alleles CYP2C19*2 and *3 are combined. Regarding CYP2D6*10, frequency difference over 0.1 is observed only between Japanese and Chinese (0.147). Although environmental factors should be considered for PK/PD differences, we could propose that among Japan, Korea, and China, genetic differences are very small for the analyzed common PK-related gene polymorphisms. On the other hand, AFs of the two HLA alleles important for cutaneous adverse drug reactions are diverse even among Eastern Asians and thus should be taken into account.

Ethnic differences in the metabolism, toxicology and efficacy of three anticancer drugs

INTRODUCTION

Large inter-individual and inter-ethnic differences are observed in efficacies and toxicities of medical drugs. To improve the predictability of these differences, pharmacogenetic information has been applied to clinical situations. Expanding pharmacogenetic information would be a valuable tool to the medical community as well as the patient to fulfill the promise of personalized anticancer drug therapy.

AREAS COVERED

This review highlights genetic polymorphisms and ethnic differences of genes, UGT1As, CYP3A4, CES1As, ABCB1, ABCC2, ABCG2, SLCO1B1, CDA and CYP2D6, involved in metabolism and disposition of three anticancer drugs: irinotecan, gemcitabine and tamoxifen.

EXPERT OPINION

Recent pharmacogenetic studies have successfully identified distinct ethnic differences in genetic polymorphisms that are potentially involved in efficacies and toxicities of anticancer drugs. This achievement has led to personalized irinotecan therapy, reflecting ethnic differences in UGT1A1 genotypes, and possible benefits of genetic testing have also been suggested for gemcitabine and tamoxifen therapy, which still requires further validation. The ultimate goal for patients is a high rate or even perfect prediction of efficacies and toxicities of anticancer drugs in each ethnic population. For this challenge, more clinical studies combined with comprehensive omics approaches are necessary to further advance the field.

In vitro and in vivo oxidative metabolism and glucuronidation of anastrozole

AIMS

Little information is available regarding the metabolic routes of anastrozole and the specific enzymes involved. We characterized anastrozole oxidative and conjugation metabolism in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

A sensitive LC-MS/MS method was developed to measure anastrozole and its metabolites in vitro and in vivo. Anastrozole metabolism was characterized using human liver microsomes (HLMs), expressed cytochrome P450s (CYPs) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs).

RESULTS

Hydroxyanastrozole and anastrozole glucuronide were identified as the main oxidative and conjugated metabolites of anastrozole in vitro, respectively. Formation of hydroxyanastrozole from anastrozole was markedly inhibited by CYP3A selective chemical inhibitors (by >90%) and significantly correlated with CYP3A activity in a panel of HLMs (r= 0.96, P= 0.0005) and mainly catalyzed by expressed CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. The K(m) values obtained from HLMs were also close to those from CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. Formation of anastrozole glucuronide in a bank of HLMs was correlated strongly with imipramine N-glucuronide, a marker of UGT1A4 (r= 0.72, P < 0.0001), while expressed UGT1A4 catalyzed its formation at the highest rate. Hydroxyanastrozole (mainly as a glucuronide) and anastrozole were quantified in plasma of breast cancer patients taking anastrozole (1 mg day⁻¹); anastrozole glucuronide was less apparent.

CONCLUSION

Anastrozole is oxidized to hydroxyanastrozole mainly by CYP3A4 (and to some extent by CYP3A5 and CYP2C8). Once formed, this metabolite undergoes glucuronidation. Variable activity of CYP3A4 (and probably UGT1A4), possibly due to genetic polymorphisms and drug interactions, may alter anastrozole disposition and its effects in vivo.

An overview of the recent progress in irinotecan pharmacogenetics

Recent developments in a number of molecular profiling technologies, including genomic/genetic testing, proteomic profiling and metabolomic analysis have allowed the development of 'personalized medicine'. Irinotecan is one of the models for personalized medicine based on pharmacogenetics, and a number of clinical studies have revealed significant associations between UGT1A1*28 and irinotecan toxicity. Based on this cumulative evidence, the US FDA and pharmaceutical companies revised the irinotecan label in June 2005. However, a recommended strategy for irinotecan-dose adjustments based on individual genetic factors has not yet been fully established. This article provides an overview of recent progress in irinotecan pharmacogenetics and discusses the clinical significance of the UGT1A1 genotype/haplotype with regard to severe irinotecan toxicity.

Coexistence of HFE and rare UGT1A1 genes mutations in patients with iron overload related liver injury

This report describes two patients hospitalised in Hepatology Unit, Infectious Diseases Department Medical University of Gdansk because of liver damage discovered in family doctor's practice. Hereditary hemochromatosis was diagnosed in both cases. Diagnosis was established basing on medical records review, and biochemical, molecular and liver specimen tests. The analysis of polymorphism of UGT1A1 gene was done in these cases because those patients were a part of the larger study on prevalence of UGT1A1 gene mutations in patients with hereditary hemochromatosis. We discovered rare variant forms of UGT1A1 gene coexisting with HFE gene mutations.

Uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase genetic polymorphisms and response to cancer chemotherapy

Pharmacogenetics aims to elucidate how genetic variation affects the efficacy and side effects of drugs, with the ultimate goal of personalizing medicine. Clinical studies of the genetic variation in the uridine 5'-diphosphoglucuronosyltransferase gene have demonstrated how reduced-function allele variants can predict the risk of severe toxicity and help identify cancer patients who could benefit from reduced-dose schedules or alternative chemotherapy. Candidate polymorphisms have also been identified in vitro, although the functional consequences of these variants still need to be tested in the clinical setting. Future approaches in uridine 5'-diphosphoglucuronosyltransferase pharmacogenetics include genetic testing prior to drug treatment, genotype-directed dose-escalation studies, study of genetic variation at the haplotype level and genome-wide studies.

Correlation of IMPDH1 gene polymorphisms with subclinical acute rejection and mycophenolic acid exposure parameters on day 28 after renal transplantation

The risk of acute rejection in patients with higher exposure to mycophenolic acid (MPA), the active metabolite of mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), might be due to inosine 5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) polymorphisms. The correlations with subclinical acute rejection, IMPDH1 polymorphisms and MPA exposure on day 28 post-transplantation were investigated in 82 Japanese recipients. Renal transplant recipients were given combination immunosuppressive therapy consisting of tacrolimus and 1.0, 1.5 or 2.0 g/day of MMF in equally divided doses every 12 hr at designated times. There were no significant differences in the incidence of subclinical acute rejection between IMPDH1 rs2278293 or rs2278294 polymorphisms (p = 0.243 and 0.735, respectively). However, in the high MPA night-time exposure range (AUC > 60 microg x h/ml and C(0 )> or = 1.9 microg/ml), there was a significant difference in the incidence of subclinical acute rejection between IMPDH1 rs2278293 A/A, A/G and G/G genotypes (each p = 0.019), but not the IMPDH1 rs2278294 genotype. In the higher daytime MPA exposure range, patients with the IMPDH1 rs2278293 G/G genotype also tended to develop subclinical acute rejection. In patients with the IMPDH rs2278293 A/A genotype, the risk of subclinical acute rejection episode tends to be low and the administration of MMF was effective. The risk of subclinical acute rejection for recipients who cannot adapt in therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) of MPA seems to be influenced by IMPDH1 rs2278293 polymorphism. The prospective analysis of IMPDH1 rs2278293 polymorphism as well as monitoring of MPA plasma concentration after transplantation might help to improve MMF therapy.

Single nucleotide polymorphism in ABCG2 is associated with irinotecan-induced severe myelosuppression

Irinotecan is an anti-neoplastic agent that is widely used for treating colorectal and lung cancers, but often causes toxicities such as severe myelosuppression and diarrhea. In this study, we performed a two-stage case-control association study for irinotecan-induced severe myelosuppression (grades 3 and 4). In the first stage, 23 patients who developed severe myelosuppression and 58 patients who did not develop any toxicity were examined for 170 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 14 genes involved in the metabolism and transport of irinotecan. A total of five SNPs were identified to show the possible association with severe myelosuppression (P(Fisher)<0.01) and were further examined in 7 cases and 20 controls in the second stage of the study. An intronic SNP, rs2622604, in ABCG2 showed P(Fisher)=0.0419 in the second stage and indicated a significant association with severe myelosuppression in the combined study (P(Fisher)=0.000237; P(Corrected)=0.036). Although only limited subjects were investigated, our results suggested that a genetic polymorphism in ABCG2 might alter the transport activity for the drug and elevate the systemic circulation level of irinotecan, leading to severe myelosuppression.

UGT1A1 gene polymorphism as a potential factor inducing iron overload in the pathogenesis of type 1 hereditary hemochromatosis

Aim Hereditary hemochromatosis is a common genetic disorder characterized by iron overload and subsequent organ damage. It is caused in most cases by HFE gene mutations which penetrance can be affected by many factors. The aim of this study was to establish the role of UGT1A1 gene polymorphism and serum bilirubin concentration in the pathogenesis of hereditary hemochromatosis. Methods Biochemical, histopathological and genetic data indicating iron excess and serum total bilirubin concentration were determined in 32 patients with the type 1 hereditary hemochromatosis. Fluorescent molecular probes assays were used for genotyping of UGT1A1*28 and UGT1A1*60 mutations in these individuals. Results High incidence and a significant correlation of UGT1A1 gene mutations with increased serum bilirubin level and lower grades of liver tissue inflammatory activity were observed in study participants. UGT1A1*28 and UGT1A1*60 mutations were strongly linked together. Two of the subjects presented very rare genotypes of UGT1A1 gene: (TA)(5/7) and c.-64G>C heterozygotes. Conclusions UGT1A1 gene polymorphism and as its consequence of high serum bilirubin level may promote iron accumulation in hemochromatosis patients by reducing the activity of inflammation. We proposed a possible mechanism of this interaction.

Gilbert's syndrome and hyperbilirubinemia in protease inhibitor therapy--an extended haplotype of genetic variants increases risk in indinavir treatment

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Gilbert's syndrome is a frequent genetic conjugation abnormality associated with adverse drug effects. Genetic UDP glucuronosyltransferase (UGT)1A gene variants can influence gene transcription, inducibility and glucuronidation activity. Protease inhibitors used in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and chronic viral hepatitis can inhibit UGTs. Indinavir (IDV) can lead to hyperbilirubinemia in Gilbert's syndrome (UGT1A1*28), which does not explain interindividual severity differences and may thus involve additional UGT1A variants.

METHODS

One hundred and twenty-five HIV patients receiving IDV and 427 healthy blood donors were genotyped for the presence of UGT1A1*28, UGT1A3 -66T/C, UGT1A7 -57T/G, UGT1A7(N129K/R131K) using Taqman 5' nuclease assays.

RESULTS

Hyperbilirubinemia was observed in 42%. UGT1A1*28 frequencies did not differ between HIV patients and controls but were significantly higher in hyperbilirubinemic patients. The frequency of homozygous carriers of the 4 UGT1A marker haplotype increased with hyperbilirubinemia affecting all patients with bilirubin levels >85 micromol/l.

CONCLUSIONS

In IDV treatment the risk of severe hyperbilirubinemia is associated with genetic variants of the UGT1A3 and UGT1A7 genes in addition to Gilbert's syndrome (UGT1A1*28). This haplotype is a useful predictor of protease inhibitor-induced side effects.