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Genetically Engineering Escherichia coli to Produce Xylitol from Corncob Hydrolysate without Lime Detoxification. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041550. [PMID: 36838538 PMCID: PMC9967598 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Before fermentation with hemicellulosic hydrolysate as a substrate, it is generally necessary to detoxify the toxic substances that are harmful to microorganism growth. Cyclic AMP receptor protein (CRP) is a global regulator, and mutation of its key sites may have an important impact on E. coli virulence tolerance. Using corncob hydrolysate without ion-exchange or lime detoxification as the substrate, shake flask fermentation experiments showed that CRP mutant IS5-dG (I112L, T127G, A144T) produced 18.4 g/L of xylitol within 34 h, and the OD600 was 9.7 at 24 h; these values were 41.5% and 21.3% higher than those of the starting strain, IS5-d, respectively. This mutant produced 82 g/L of xylitol from corncob hydrolysate without ion-exchange or lime detoxification during fed-batch fermentation in a 15-L bioreactor, with a productivity of 1.04 g/L/h; these values were 173% and 174% higher than the starting strain, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the highest xylitol concentration and productivity produced by microbial fermentation using completely non-detoxified hemicellulosic hydrolysate as the substrate to date. This study also showed that alkali neutralization, high temperature sterilization, and fermentation of the hydrolysate had important effects on the xylose loss rate and xylitol production.
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Xylose Metabolism in Bacteria—Opportunities and Challenges towards Efficient Lignocellulosic Biomass-Based Biorefineries. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11178112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In a sustainable society based on circular economy, the use of waste lignocellulosic biomass (LB) as feedstock for biorefineries is a promising solution, since LB is the world’s most abundant renewable and non-edible raw material. LB is available as a by-product from agricultural and forestry processes, and its main components are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Following suitable physical, enzymatic, and chemical steps, the different fractions can be processed and/or converted to value-added products such as fuels and biochemicals used in several branches of industry through the implementation of the biorefinery concept. Upon hydrolysis, the carbohydrate-rich fraction may comprise several simple sugars (e.g., glucose, xylose, arabinose, and mannose) that can then be fed to fermentation units. Unlike pentoses, glucose and other hexoses are readily processed by microorganisms. Some wild-type and genetically modified bacteria can metabolize xylose through three different main pathways of metabolism: xylose isomerase pathway, oxidoreductase pathway, and non-phosphorylative pathway (including Weimberg and Dahms pathways). Two of the commercially interesting intermediates of these pathways are xylitol and xylonic acid, which can accumulate in the medium either through manipulation of the culture conditions or through genetic modification of the bacteria. This paper provides a state-of-the art perspective regarding the current knowledge on xylose transport and metabolism in bacteria as well as envisaged strategies to further increase xylose conversion into valuable products.
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Yuan X, Mao Y, Tu S, Lin J, Shen H, Yang L, Wu M. Increasing NADPH Availability for Xylitol Production via Pentose-Phosphate-Pathway Gene Overexpression and Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas-Pathway Gene Deletion in Escherichia coli. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:9625-9631. [PMID: 34382797 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c03283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Cofactor availability is often a rate-limiting factor in the bioconversion of xylose to xylitol. The overexpression of pentose phosphate pathway genes and the deletion of Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway genes can modulate the glucose metabolic flux and increase the intracellular NADPH supply, enabling Escherichia coli cells to produce xylitol from corncob hydrolysates. The effects of zwf and/or gnd overexpression and pfkA, pfkB, and/or pgi deletion on the intracellular redox environment and xylitol production were examined. The NADPH-enhanced strain 2bpgi produced 162 g/L xylitol from corncob hydrolysates after a 76 h fed-batch fermentation in a 15 L bioreactor, which was 13.3% greater than the 143 g/L xylitol produced by the IS5-d control strain. Additionally, the xylitol productivity and xylitol yield per glucose for 2bpgi were 2.13 g/L/h and 2.50 g/g, respectively. Thus, the genetic modifications in 2bpgi significantly enhanced NADPH regeneration, making 2bpgi a potentially useful strain for the industrial-scale production of xylitol from detoxified corncob hydrolysates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinsong Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, PR China
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hefei Normal University, Hefei 230601, PR China
| | - Yudi Mao
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, PR China
| | - Shuai Tu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hefei Normal University, Hefei 230601, PR China
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Jianping Lin
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, PR China
| | - Huahao Shen
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Lirong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, PR China
| | - Mianbin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, PR China
- Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Ningbo 315100, PR China
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Production of poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) from xylose-glucose mixtures by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens C1. 3 Biotech 2021; 11:100. [PMID: 33520585 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-021-02661-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to the promising applications, the demand to enhance poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) production while decreasing the cost has increased in the past decade. Here, xylose/glucose mixture and corncob hydrolysate (CCH) was evaluated as alternatives for γ-PGA production by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens C1. Although both have been validated to support cell growth, glucose and xylose were not simutaneously consumed and exhibited a diauxic growth pattern due to carbon catabolite repression (CCR) in B. amyloliquefaciens C1, while the enhanced transcription of araE alleviated the xylose transport bottleneck across a cellular membrane. Additionally, the xyl operon (xylA and xylB), which was responsible for xylose metabolism, was strongly induced by xylose at the transcriptional level. When cultured in a mixed medium, xylR was sharply induced to 3.39-folds during the first 8-h while reduced to the base level similar to that in xylose medium. Finally, pre-treated CCH mainly contained a mixture of glucose and xylose was employed for γ-PGA fermentation, which obtained a final concentration of 6.56 ± 0.27 g/L. Although the glucose utilization rate (84.91 ± 1.81%) was lower than that with chemical substrates, the xylose utilization rate (43.41 ± 2.14%) and the sodium glutamate conversion rate (77.22%) of CCH were acceptable. Our study provided a promising approach for the green production of γ-PGA from lignocellulosic biomass and circumvent excessive non-food usage of glucose.
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Tang H, Ju X, Zhao J, Li L. Engineering ribose-5-phosphate isomerase B from a central carbon metabolic enzyme to a promising sugar biocatalyst. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:509-523. [PMID: 33394147 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-11075-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase B (RpiB) was first identified in the pentose phosphate pathway responsible for the inter-conversion of ribose-5-phosphate and ribulose-5-phosphate. Though there are seldom key enzymes in central carbon metabolic system developed as useful biocatalysts, RpiB with the advantages of wide substrate scope and high stereoselectivity has become a potential biotechnological tool to fulfill the demand of rare sugars currently. In this review, the pivotal roles of RpiB in carbon metabolism are summarized, and their sequence identity and structural similarity are discussed. Substrate binding and catalytic mechanisms are illustrated to provide solid foundations for enzyme engineering. Interesting differences in origin, physiological function, structure, and catalytic mechanism between RpiB and ribose-5-phosphate isomerase A are introduced. Moreover, enzyme engineering efforts for rare sugar production are stressed, and prospects of future development are concluded briefly in the viewpoint of biocatalysis. Aided by the progresses of structural and computational biology, the application of RpiB will be promoted greatly in the preparation of valuable molecules. KEY POINTS: • Detailed illustration of RpiB's vital function in central carbon metabolism. • Potential of RpiB in sequence, substrate scope, and mechanism for application. • Enzyme engineering efforts to promote RpiB in the preparation of rare sugars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengtao Tang
- School of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, No.99 Xuefu Rd., Huqiu district, Suzhou, 215009, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Ju
- School of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, No.99 Xuefu Rd., Huqiu district, Suzhou, 215009, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
| | - Liangzhi Li
- School of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, No.99 Xuefu Rd., Huqiu district, Suzhou, 215009, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China.
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Su B, Song D, Zhu H. Homology-dependent recombination of large synthetic pathways into E. coli genome via λ-Red and CRISPR/Cas9 dependent selection methodology. Microb Cell Fact 2020; 19:108. [PMID: 32448328 PMCID: PMC7245811 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-020-01360-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Metabolic engineering frequently needs genomic integration of many heterologous genes for biosynthetic pathway assembly. Despite great progresses in genome editing for the model microorganism Escherichia coli, the integration of large pathway into genome for stabilized chemical production is still challenging compared with small DNA integration. Results We have developed a λ-Red assisted homology-dependent recombination for large synthetic pathway integration in E. coli. With this approach, we can integrate as large as 12 kb DNA module into the chromosome of E. coli W3110 in a single step. The efficiency of this method can reach 100%, thus markedly improve the integration efficiency and overcome the limitation of the integration size adopted the common method. Furthermore, the limiting step in the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway and lycopene synthetic pathway were integrated into the W3110 genome using our system. Subsequently, the yields of the final strain were increased 106 and 4.4-fold compared to the initial strain and the reference strain, respectively. Conclusions In addition to pre-existing method, our system presents an optional strategy for avoiding using plasmids and a valuable tool for large synthetic pathway assembly in E. coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Buli Su
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Microbial Culture Collection Center (GDMCC), Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510070, People's Republic of China
| | - Dandan Song
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Microbial Culture Collection Center (GDMCC), Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510070, People's Republic of China
| | - Honghui Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Microbial Culture Collection Center (GDMCC), Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510070, People's Republic of China.
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Combination of the CRP mutation and ptsG deletion in Escherichia coli to efficiently synthesize xylitol from corncob hydrolysates. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:2039-2050. [PMID: 31950219 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-10324-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The biotechnology-based production of xylitol has received widespread attention because it can use cheap and renewable lignocellulose as a raw material, thereby decreasing costs and pollution. The simultaneous use of various sugars in lignocellulose hydrolysates is a primary prerequisite for efficient xylitol production. In this study, a ΔptsG and crp* combinatorial strategy was used to generate Escherichia coli W3110 strain IS5-dI, which completely eliminated glucose repression and simultaneously used glucose and xylose. This strain produced 164 g/L xylitol from detoxified corncob hydrolysates during a fed-batch fermentation in a 15-L bioreactor, which was 14.7% higher than the xylitol produced by the starting strain, IS5-d (143 g/L), and the xylitol productivity was 3.04 g/L/h. These results represent the highest xylitol concentration and productivity reported to date for bacteria and hemicellulosic sugars. Additionally, strain IS5-dG, which differs from IS5-dI at CRP amino acid residue 127 (I127G), was tolerant to the toxins in corncob hydrolysates. In a fed-batch fermentation experiment involving a 15-L bioreactor, IS5-dG produced 137 g/L xylitol from non-detoxified corncob hydrolysates, with a productivity of 1.76 g/L/h. On the basis of these results, we believe that IS5-dI and IS5-dG may be useful host strains for the industrial-scale production of xylitol from detoxified or non-detoxified corncob hydrolysates.
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Yuan X, Wang J, Lin J, Yang L, Wu M. Efficient production of xylitol by the integration of multiple copies of xylose reductase gene and the deletion of Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway-associated genes to enhance NADPH regeneration in Escherichia coli. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 46:1061-1069. [PMID: 31025135 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-019-02169-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Cofactor supply is a rate-limiting step in the bioconversion of xylose to xylitol. Strain WZ04 was first constructed by a novel simultaneous deletion-insertion strategy, replacing ptsG, xylAB and ptsF in wild-type Escherichia coli W3110 with three mutated xylose reductase genes (xr) from Neurospora crassa. Then, the pfkA, pfkB, pgi and/or sthA genes were deleted and replaced by xr to investigate the influence of carbon flux toward the pentose phosphate pathway and/or transhydrogenase activity on NADPH generation. The deletion of pfkA/pfkB significantly improved NADPH supply, but minimally influenced cell growth. The effects of insertion position and copy number of xr were examined by a quantitative real-time PCR and a shake-flask fermentation experiment. In a fed-batch fermentation experiment with a 15-L bioreactor, strain WZ51 produced 131.6 g L-1 xylitol from hemicellulosic hydrolysate (xylitol productivity: 2.09 g L-1 h-1). This study provided a potential approach for industrial-scale production of xylitol from hemicellulosic hydrolysate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinsong Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiping Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianping Lin
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Lirong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Mianbin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China.
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Wang S, Fu C, Bilal M, Hu H, Wang W, Zhang X. Enhanced biosynthesis of arbutin by engineering shikimate pathway in Pseudomonas chlororaphis P3. Microb Cell Fact 2018; 17:174. [PMID: 30414616 PMCID: PMC6230248 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-018-1022-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Arbutin is a plant-derived glycoside with potential antioxidant, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities. Currently, it is mainly produced by plant extraction or enzymatic processes, which suffers from expensive processing cost and low product yield. Metabolic engineering of microbes is an increasingly powerful method for the high-level production of valuable biologicals. Since Pseudomonas chlororaphis has been widely engineered as a phenazine-producing platform organism due to its well-characterized genetics and physiology, and faster growth rate using glycerol as a renewable carbon source, it can also be engineered as the cell factory using strong shikimate pathway on the basis of synthetic biology. RESULTS In this work, a plasmid-free biosynthetic pathway was constructed in P. chlororaphis P3 for elevated biosynthesis of arbutin from sustainable carbon sources. The arbutin biosynthetic pathway was expressed under the native promoter Pphz using chromosomal integration. Instead of being plasmid and inducer dependent, the metabolic engineering approach used to fine-tune the biosynthetic pathway significantly enhanced the arbutin production with a 22.4-fold increase. On the basis of medium factor optimization and mixed fed-batch fermentation of glucose and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, the engineered P. chlororaphis P3-Ar5 strain led to the highest arbutin production of 6.79 g/L with the productivity of 0.094 g/L/h, with a 54-fold improvement over the initial strain. CONCLUSIONS The results suggested that the construction of plasmid-free synthetic pathway displays a high potential for improved biosynthesis of arbutin and other shikimate pathway derived biologicals in P. chlororaphis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songwei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Cong Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Muhammad Bilal
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Hongbo Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China.,National Experimental, Teaching Center for Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Xuehong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China.
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Paidimuddala B, Mohapatra SB, Gummadi SN, Manoj N. Crystal structure of yeast xylose reductase in complex with a novel NADP-DTT adduct provides insights into substrate recognition and catalysis. FEBS J 2018; 285:4445-4464. [PMID: 30269423 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Aldose reductases (ARs) belonging to the aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily catalyze the conversion of carbonyl substrates into their respective alcohols. Here we report the crystal structures of the yeast Debaryomyces nepalensis xylose reductase (DnXR, AKR2B10) in the apo form and as a ternary complex with a novel NADP-DTT adduct. Xylose reductase, a key enzyme in the conversion of xylose to xylitol, has several industrial applications. The enzyme displayed the highest catalytic efficiency for l-threose (138 ± 7 mm-1 ·s-1 ) followed by d-erythrose (30 ± 3 mm-1 ·s-1 ). The crystal structure of the complex reveals a covalent linkage between the C4N atom of the nicotinamide ring of the cosubstrate and the S1 sulfur atom of DTT and provides the first structural evidence for a protein mediated NADP-low-molecular-mass thiol adduct. We hypothesize that the formation of the adduct is facilitated by an in-crystallo Michael addition of the DTT thiolate to the specific conformation of bound NADPH in the active site of DnXR. The interactions between DTT, a four-carbon sugar alcohol analog, and the enzyme are representative of a near-cognate product ternary complex and provide significant insights into the structural basis of aldose binding and specificity and the catalytic mechanism of ARs. DATABASE: Structural data are available in the PDB under the accession numbers 5ZCI and 5ZCM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhaskar Paidimuddala
- Applied and Industrial Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Samar B Mohapatra
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Sathyanarayana N Gummadi
- Applied and Industrial Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Narayanan Manoj
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
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