1
|
Mitchell SJ. Decompression illness: a comprehensive overview. Diving Hyperb Med 2024; 54:1-53. [PMID: 38537300 PMCID: PMC11168797 DOI: 10.28920/dhm54.1.suppl.1-53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Decompression illness is a collective term for two maladies (decompression sickness [DCS] and arterial gas embolism [AGE]) that may arise during or after surfacing from compressed gas diving. Bubbles are the presumed primary vector of injury in both disorders, but the respective sources of bubbles are distinct. In DCS bubbles form primarily from inert gas that becomes dissolved in tissues over the course of a compressed gas dive. During and after ascent ('decompression'), if the pressure of this dissolved gas exceeds ambient pressure small bubbles may form in the extravascular space or in tissue blood vessels, thereafter passing into the venous circulation. In AGE, if compressed gas is trapped in the lungs during ascent, pulmonary barotrauma may introduce bubbles directly into the pulmonary veins and thence to the systemic arterial circulation. In both settings, bubbles may provoke ischaemic, inflammatory, and mechanical injury to tissues and their associated microcirculation. While AGE typically presents with stroke-like manifestations referrable to cerebral involvement, DCS can affect many organs including the brain, spinal cord, inner ear, musculoskeletal tissue, cardiopulmonary system and skin, and potential symptoms are protean in both nature and severity. This comprehensive overview addresses the pathophysiology, manifestations, prevention and treatment of both disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Mitchell
- Department of Anaesthesiology, School of Medicine, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Anaesthesia, Auckland City Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand
- Slark Hyperbaric Medicine Unit, North Shore Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand
- Corresponding address: Department of Anaesthesiology, School of Medicine, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand, ORCiD: 0000-0002-5149-6371,
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Gwozdzinski L, Bernasinska-Slomczewska J, Hikisz P, Wiktorowska-Owczarek A, Kowalczyk E, Pieniazek A. The Effect of Diosmin, Escin, and Bromelain on Human Endothelial Cells Derived from the Umbilical Vein and the Varicose Vein-A Preliminary Study. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1702. [PMID: 37371797 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11061702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the properties of human varicose vein (VV) endothelial cells (HVVEC) in comparison to the human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The cells were treated with three bioactive compounds with proven beneficial effects in the therapy of patients with VV, diosmin, escin, and bromelain. Two concentrations of tested drugs were used (1, 10 mg/mL), which did not affect the viability of either cell type. Escin led to a slight generation of reactive oxygen species in HUVEC cells. We observed a slight release of superoxide in HVVEC cells upon treatment with diosmin and escin. Diosmin and bromelain showed a tendency to release nitric oxide in HUVEC. Using membrane fluorescent probes, we demonstrated a reduced fluidity of HVVEC, which may lead to their increased adhesion, and, consequently, a much more frequent occurrence of venous thrombosis. For the first time, we show the mechanism of action of drugs used in VV therapy on endothelial cells derived from a VV. Studies with HVVEC have shown that tested drugs may lead to a reduction in the adhesive properties of these cells, and thus to a lower risk of thrombosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lukasz Gwozdzinski
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Lodz, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
| | - Joanna Bernasinska-Slomczewska
- Department of Oncobiology and Epigenetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-236 Lodz, Poland
| | - Pawel Hikisz
- Department of Oncobiology and Epigenetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-236 Lodz, Poland
| | | | - Edward Kowalczyk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Lodz, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
| | - Anna Pieniazek
- Department of Oncobiology and Epigenetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-236 Lodz, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Breath-Hold Diving-Related Decompression Sickness with Brain Involvement: From Neuroimaging to Pathophysiology. Tomography 2022; 8:1172-1183. [PMID: 35645382 PMCID: PMC9149941 DOI: 10.3390/tomography8030096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system involvement related to decompression sickness (DCS) is a very rare complication of breath-hold diving. So far, it has been postulated that repeated dives with short surface intervals represent a key factor in the development of breath-holding-related DCS. We report the case of a breath-hold diver who, after repeated immersion, developed DCS with brain involvement. After treatment in a hyperbaric chamber, there was a clinical improvement in the symptoms. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain showed hyperintense lesions in long-time repetition sequences (FLAIR, T2WI) in the left frontal and right temporal lobes. Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) sequences and the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) map were characteristic of vasogenic edema, allowing us to exclude the ischemic nature of the process. These findings, together with the acute clinical presentation, the resolution of lesions in evolutionary radiological controls and the possible involvement of blood–brain barrier/endothelial dysfunction in DCS, could suggest a new form of posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES)-like presentation of DCS. This would represent a novel mechanism to explain the pathophysiology of this entity. We conducted a literature review, analyzing the pathophysiological and neuroimaging characteristics of DCS in breath-hold diving based on a case of this rare disease.
Collapse
|
4
|
Arieli R. Endothelial Injury in Diving: Atomic Force-, Electronic-, and Light-Microscopy Study of the Ovine Decompressed Blood Vessels. Front Physiol 2021; 12:767435. [PMID: 34721086 PMCID: PMC8554307 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.767435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We suggested that the nanobubbles, which appear at the active hydrophobic spots (AHSs) at the luminal aspect of the blood vessels, are the gas micronuclei from which the decompression bubbles evolve and the endothelial injury during the decompression is due to the tearing off the cell membranes with the detaching bubbles. Ovine blood vessels were stretched over the polycarbonate plates or glass microscopic slides and were exposed under saline to the hyperbaric pressure (1,013 kPa, 19 h). Following decompression, the blood vessels were photographed for the identification (by bubble formation) of the AHS. Nanobubbles could not be demonstrated at the AHS by using the atomic force microscopy (AFM) because of the roughness of the surface, which disabled the close contact of the probe. In the electron microscopy, no endothelial cells were observed in the samples from the area near to the AHS, but the underlying elastin layer of the intima was observed adjacent to the media. Some intact endothelial cells were observed only in the locations far from an AHS. In the optical microscopy, no endothelial cells were observed in the blood vessels in close proximity to the AHS and in some sections, debris or a detached cluster of the endothelial cells were observed. Intact endothelial cells could be found at the sites distant from an AHS. This study supports the assumption, where the detached bubbles tear off the endothelial cells and cause the initial endothelial injury following the decompression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ran Arieli
- Israel Naval Medical Institute, Israel Defense Forces Medical Corps, Haifa, Israel.,Eliachar Research Laboratory, Western Galilee Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Zhang K, Zhang H, Yi H, Huang G, Zhao X, Yu S, Xu W. The protective effects of 1,3-butanediol acetoacetate diester on decompression sickness in rats. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2021; 131:435-441. [PMID: 34166120 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00035.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Inert gas bubbles are widely accepted as the causative factor of decompression sickness (DCS), resulting in gas embolism and systemic inflammatory responses. The anticonvulsive ketone ester 1,3-butanediol acetoacetate diester (BD-AcAc2) was reported to have the characteristics of increasing blood oxygen partial pressure (ppO2) and anti-inflammation and was thought to have the potential to reduce bubble formation and alleviate the pathological process of DCS. This study aims to investigate the potential protection of BD-AcAc2 against DCS in a rat model. A single dose of BD-AcAc2 was administered orally to adult male rats (5 g/kg body wt), followed by pharmacokinetic analysis or simulated air dives. After decompression, signs of DCS were monitored, and blood was sampled for biochemical measurements. Blood ketosis peaked at 2 h and lasted for more than 4 h. The incidence of DCS was decreased and postponed significantly in rats treated with BD-AcAc2 compared with those treated with saline (P < 0.05). Although BD-AcAc2 failed to reduce bubble load (P > 0.05), it showed an obvious decreasing trend. BD-AcAc2 significantly increased blood ppO2 and ameliorated oxidative and inflammatory responses, represented by increased plasma malondialdehyde (MDA), IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α and decreased glutathione thiol (P < 0.05) levels, whereas blood pH remained unchanged (P > 0.05). These results suggest that BD-AcAc2 exerted beneficial effects on DCS rats mainly related to increasing ppO2 and anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Together with its capacity for delaying central nervous system (CNS) oxygen toxicity seizures, BD-AcAc2 might be an ideal drug candidate for DCS prevention and treatment.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study exploring the effects of BD-AcAc2 on DCS prevention, and it was proven to be an efficient and simple method. The role of BD-AcAc2 in increasing ppO2, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties was thought to be the critical mechanism in DCS prevention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kun Zhang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medicine Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Haidong Zhang
- Department of Organic Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongjie Yi
- Department of Hyperbaric Oxygen, The First Affiliated Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Guoyang Huang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medicine Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xupeng Zhao
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medicine Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shichong Yu
- Department of Organic Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weigang Xu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medicine Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhou Q, Meng X, Huang G, Yi H, Zheng J, Zhang K, Xu W. MEK1/2 Inhibition Synergistically Enhances the Preventive Effects of Normobaric Oxygen on Spinal Cord Injury in Decompression Sickness Rats. Front Physiol 2021; 12:674430. [PMID: 34140895 PMCID: PMC8204088 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.674430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
A previous study from our team found that hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) pretreatment attenuated decompression sickness (DCS) spinal cord injury by upregulating heat shock protein 32 (HSP32) via the ROS/p38 MAPK pathway. Meanwhile, a MEK1/2-negative regulatory pathway was also activated to inhibit HSP32 overexpression. The purpose of this study was to determine if normobaric oxygen (NBO) might effectively induce HSP32 while concurrently inhibiting MEK1/2 and to observe any protective effects on spinal cord injury in DCS rats. The expression of HSP32 in spinal cord tissue was measured at 6, 12, 18, and 24 h following NBO and MEK1/2 inhibitor U0126 pretreatment. The peak time of HSP32 was observed at 12 h after simulated air diving. Subsequently, signs of DCS, hindlimb motor function, and spinal cord and serum injury biomarkers were recorded. NBO-U0126 pretreatment significantly decreased the incidence of DCS, improved motor function, and attenuated oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and apoptosis in both the spinal cord and serum. These results suggest that pretreatment with NBO and U0126 combined can effectively alleviate DCS spinal cord injury in rats by upregulating HSP32. This may lead to a more convenient approach for DCS injury control, using non-pressurized NBO instead of HBO.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Quan Zhou
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiangyang Meng
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Guoyang Huang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongjie Yi
- Department of Hyperbaric Oxygen, The First Affiliated Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Juan Zheng
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Kun Zhang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weigang Xu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Yu X, Xu J, Liu W, Zhang Z, He C, Xu W. Protective effects of pulmonary surfactant on decompression sickness in rats. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2020; 130:400-407. [PMID: 33270509 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00807.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Decompression sickness (DCS) is a systemic pathophysiological process featured by bubble load. Lung dysfunction plays a harmful effect on off-gassing, which contributes to bubble load and subsequent DCS occurrence. This study aimed to investigate the effects of pulmonary surfactant on DCS as it possesses multiple advantages on the lung. Rats were divided into three groups: the normal (n = 10), the surfactant (n = 36), and the saline (n = 36) group. Animals in surfactant or saline group were administered aerosol surfactant or saline 12 h before a stimulated diving, respectively. Signs of DCS were recorded and bubble load was detected. The contents of phospholipid and surfactant protein A (SPA), protein, IL-1 and IL-6 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and lung wet/dry (W/D) ratio were determined. Serum levels of IL-6, ICAM-1, E-selectin, GSH, and GSSG were detected. In surfactant-treated rats, the morbidity and mortality of DCS markedly decreased (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively). Survival time prolonged and the latency to DCS dramatically delayed (P < 0.01). More importantly, bubble load markedly decreased (P < 0.01). The increases of protein, IL-1 and IL-6 in BALF, and lung W/D ratio were alleviated. Restoration of total phospholipid and SPA in BALF and ICAM-1 and E-selectin in serum was observed. The inflammation and oxidation were attenuated (P < 0.01). In conclusion, prediving administrating exogenous surfactant by aerosolization is an efficient, simple, and safe method for DCS prevention in rats.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study exploring the effects of aerosol surfactant on DCS prevention and it was proven to be an efficient and simple method. The role of surfactant in facilitating off-gassing was thought to be the critical mechanism in bubble degrading and subsequent DCS prevention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xuhua Yu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiajun Xu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenwu Liu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ze Zhang
- The 17th detachment of the frigate, Jiangmen, China
| | - Chunyang He
- Department of Hyperbaric Oxygen, General Hospital in Western Theater of Operations, Chengdu, China
| | - Weigang Xu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Special Medical Center, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Tang SE, Liao WI, Wu SY, Pao HP, Huang KL, Chu SJ. The Blockade of Store-Operated Calcium Channels Improves Decompression Sickness in Rats. Front Physiol 2020; 10:1616. [PMID: 32082179 PMCID: PMC7005134 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Previous investigations reveal that BTP2, a store-operated calcium channel blocker, has protective and anti-inflammatory properties in multiple inflammatory diseases. This study investigates whether BTP2 can protect against decompression sickness (DCS) in a rat model. Methods BTP2 (2 mg/kg) was administered to male Sprague–Dawley rats 30 min before subjecting them to hyperbaric pressure. Control rats were not treated. After decompression, signs of DCS were examined, and samples of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung tissue were obtained for evaluation. Results The incidence and mortality of DCS were decreased significantly in rats treated with BTP2 compared to those treated with dimethyl sulfoxide. BTP2 significantly attenuated DCS-induced lung edema, histological evidence of lung inflammation, necroptosis, and apoptosis, while it decreased levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, and cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant-1 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. In addition, BTP2 reduced the expression of nuclear factor of activated T cells and early growth response protein 3 in lung tissue. BTP2 also significantly increased the levels of inhibitor kappa B alpha and suppressed the levels of nuclear factor kappa B in lung tissue. Conclusion The results suggest that BTP2 may has potential as a prophylactic therapy to attenuate DCS-induced injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shih-En Tang
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Aerospace and Undersea Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wen-I Liao
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Yu Wu
- Graduate Institute of Aerospace and Undersea Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Ping Pao
- Graduate Institute of Aerospace and Undersea Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Lun Huang
- Graduate Institute of Aerospace and Undersea Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shi-Jye Chu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wang M, Zhang K, Nie S, Huang G, Yi H, He C, Buzzacott P, Xu W. Biphasic effects of autophagy on decompression bubble-induced endothelial injury. J Cell Mol Med 2019; 23:8058-8066. [PMID: 31515946 PMCID: PMC6850936 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.14672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Endothelial dysfunction induced by bubbles plays an important role in decompression sickness (DCS), but the mechanism of which has not been clear. The present study was to investigate the role of autophagy in bubble‐induced endothelial injury. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were treated with bubbles, autophagy markers and endothelial injury indices were determined, and relationship strengths were quantified. Effects of autophagy inhibitor 3‐methyladenine (3‐MA) were observed. Bubble contact for 1, 5, 10, 20 or 30 minutes induced significant autophagy with increases in LC3‐II/I ratio and Beclin‐1, and a decrease in P62, which correlated with bubble contact duration. Apoptosis rate, cytochrome C and cleaved caspase‐3 increased, and cell viability decreased following bubble contact for 10, 20 or 30 minutes, but not for 1 or 5 minutes. Injuries in HUVECs were correlated with LC3‐II/I ratio and partially reversed by 3‐MA in 10, 20 or 30 minutes contact, but worsened in 1 or 5 minutes. Bubble pre‐conditioning for 1 minutes resulted in increased cell viability and decreased apoptosis rate compared with no pre‐conditioning, and 30‐minutes pre‐conditioning induced opposing changes, all of which were inhibited by 3‐MA. In conclusion, autophagy was involved and played a biphasic role in bubble‐induced endothelial injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengmeng Wang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Kun Zhang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shaojie Nie
- Administration Office for Undergraduates, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Guoyang Huang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongjie Yi
- Department of Hyperbaric Oxygen, Changhai Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Chunyang He
- Department of Hyperbaric Oxygen, General Hospital in Western Theater of Operations, Chengdu, China
| | - Peter Buzzacott
- School of Sports Science, Exercise and Health, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, Australia
| | - Weigang Xu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hoencamp E, van Dongen TT, van Ooij PJA, Wingelaar TT, Vervelde ML, Koch DA, van Hulst RA, Hoencamp R. Systematic review on the effects of medication under hyperbaric conditions: consequences for the diver. Diving Hyperb Med 2019; 49:127-136. [PMID: 31177519 DOI: 10.28920/dhm49.2.127-136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Physiological changes are induced by immersion, swimming and using diving equipment. Divers must be fit to dive. Using medication may impact the capacity to adapt to hyperbaric conditions. The aim of this systematic review is to assess the interaction of diving/hyperbaric conditions and medication and to provide basic heuristics to support decision making regarding fitness to dive in medicated divers. METHODS This was a systematic review of human and animal studies of medications in the hyperbaric environment. Studies were subdivided into those describing a medication/hyperbaric environment interaction and those concerned with prevention of diving disorders. Studies without a relation to diving with compressed air, and those concerning oxygen toxicity, hyperbaric oxygen therapy or the treatment of decompression sickness were excluded. RESULTS Forty-four studies matched the inclusion criteria. Animal studies revealed that diazepam and valproate gave limited protection against the onset of the high-pressure neurological syndrome. Lithium had a protective effect against nitrogen-narcosis and losartan reduced cardiac changes in repetitive diving. Human studies showed no beneficial or dangerous pressure-related interactions. In prevention of diving disorders, pseudoephedrine reduced otic barotrauma, vitamins C and E reduced endothelial dysfunction after bounce diving and hepatic oxidative stress in saturation diving. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Animal studies revealed that psycho-pharmaceuticals can limit the onset of neurologic symptoms and cardiovascular protective drugs might add a potential protective effect against decompression sickness. No evidence of significant risks due to changes in pharmacologic mechanisms were revealed and most medication is not a contraindication to diving. For improving decision making in prescribing medicine for recreational and occupational divers and to enhance safety by increasing our understanding of pharmacology in hyperbaric conditions, future research should focus on controlled human studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erik Hoencamp
- Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Thijs Tcf van Dongen
- Defense Healthcare Organization, Ministry of Defense, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Surgery, Alrijne Hospital, Leiderdorp, The Netherlands.,Corresponding author: Thijs TCF van Dongen, Department of Surgery, Alrijne Hospital, PO Box 4220, 2350 CC Leiderdorp, Simon Smitweg 1, 2353 GA Leiderdorp, The Netherlands,
| | | | - Thijs T Wingelaar
- Diving Medical Center, Royal Netherlands Navy, Den Helder, The Netherlands
| | | | - Dave Aa Koch
- Diving Medical Center, Royal Netherlands Navy, Den Helder, The Netherlands
| | - Rob A van Hulst
- Diving Medical Center, Royal Netherlands Navy, Den Helder, The Netherlands.,Department of Anesthesiology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rigo Hoencamp
- Defense Healthcare Organization, Ministry of Defense, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Surgery, Alrijne Hospital, Leiderdorp, The Netherlands.,Division of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Qing L, Meng W, Zhang W, Yi HJ, Zhang K, Ariyadewa DK, Xu WG. Benefits of Escin for Decompression Sickness in Bama Pigs by Endothelial-Targeting Protection. Front Physiol 2019; 10:605. [PMID: 31178750 PMCID: PMC6537669 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Endothelial dysfunction has been considered as pivotal in the pathogenesis of decompression sickness (DCS) and contributes substantively to subsequent inflammatory responses. Escin is well known for its endothelial protection and anti-inflammatory properties, and its protection against DCS has been proved in a rat model. This study aimed to further investigate the protection of escin against DCS in swine. Sixteen swine were subjected to a two-stage experiment with an interval of 7 days. In each stage, 7 days before a simulated air dive, the swine were treated with escin or saline. The first group received a successive administration of escin for 7 days prior to the first dive and saline for 7 days prior to the second; the second group was treated with saline and then escin. After decompression, signs of DCS and circulating bubbles were monitored, and blood was sampled for platelet count and determination of inflammatory and endothelial related indices. The death rate of DCS was markedly decreased in swine treated with escin compared with that in animals treated with saline, though not statistically significant due to the limited number of animals. Escin had no effect on bubble load but significantly ameliorated platelet reduction and endothelial dysfunction, as well as oxidative and inflammatory responses. The results further suggest the beneficial effects of escin on DCS by its endothelia-protective properties, and escin has the potential to be a candidate drug for DCS prevention and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Long Qing
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wentao Meng
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hong-Jie Yi
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Kun Zhang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | | | - Wei-Gang Xu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Saadi A, Ferenczi EA, Reda H. Spinal Decompression Sickness in an Experienced Scuba Diver: A Case Report and Review of Literature. Neurohospitalist 2019; 9:235-238. [PMID: 31534615 DOI: 10.1177/1941874419828895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Decompression sickness from diving is a rare but potentially reversible cause of spinal injury. Early treatment with hyperbaric oxygen is associated with a better neurologic outcome, making prompt recognition and management clinically important. We describe a case of a 65-year-old diver who presented with thoracic back pain and bilateral leg weakness after a 70 feet of sea water (fsw) (21 meters of sea water [msw]) dive, with no acute abnormality on spinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). He made a partial recovery after extended hyperbaric oxygen therapy. We discuss the epidemiology and pathophysiology of central nervous system injury in decompression sickness, as well as acute management and prognostic factors for recovery, including the role of adjunctive therapies and the implications of negative MRI. Ultimately, clinicians should make the diagnosis of spinal cord decompression sickness based primarily on clinical evaluation, not on MRI findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Altaf Saadi
- Partners Neurology Residency Program, Massachusetts General Hospital and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Emily A Ferenczi
- Partners Neurology Residency Program, Massachusetts General Hospital and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Haatem Reda
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Han CH, Zhang PX, Liu WW. Macrophage polarization is related to the pathogenesis of decompression induced lung injury. Med Gas Res 2017; 7:220-223. [PMID: 29152216 PMCID: PMC5674661 DOI: 10.4103/2045-9912.215753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have shown that blood bubbles may be detectable and there is ultrasonic evidence of acute interstitial lung edema even after diving without protocol violation. Macrophages play a central role in the inflammation, and macrophage polarization is closely related to the pathogenesis some lung diseases. Available findings indicate that decompression may induce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules in the blood and tissues, which are associated with the macrophage polarization, and hyperbaric treatment may exert therapeutic effects on decompression related diseases via regulating these factors. Thus, we hypothesize that the polarization of circulating and/or resident macrophages is involved in the pathogenesis of decompression induced lung injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cui-Hong Han
- Department of Pathology, the First Hospital of Jining City, Jining City, Shandong Province, China
| | - Pei-Xi Zhang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, the First Hospital of Jining City, Jining City, Shandong Province, China
| | - Wen-Wu Liu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Secondary Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Zhu J, Yu W, Liu B, Wang Y, Shao J, Wang J, Xia K, Liang C, Fang W, Zhou C, Tao H. Escin induces caspase-dependent apoptosis and autophagy through the ROS/p38 MAPK signalling pathway in human osteosarcoma cells in vitro and in vivo. Cell Death Dis 2017; 8:e3113. [PMID: 29022891 PMCID: PMC5682655 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2017.488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 08/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Osteosarcoma is one of the most malignant neoplasms in adolescents, and it generally develops multidrug resistance. Escin, a natural mixture of triterpene saponins isolated from Aesculus hippocastanum (horse chestnut), has demonstrated potent anti-tumour potential in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we found that escin inhibited osteosarcoma proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Additionally, escin-induced apoptosis was evidenced by the increased expression of caspase-related proteins and the formation of apoptotic bodies. Escin also induced autophagy, with elevated LC3, ATG5, ATG12 and Beclin expression as well as autophagosome formation. Inhibition of escin-induced autophagy promoted apoptosis. Moreover, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were activated by escin. A p38 MAPK inhibitor partially attenuated the autophagy and apoptosis triggered by escin, but a ROS scavenger showed a greater inhibitory effect. Finally, the therapeutic efficacy of escin against osteosarcoma was demonstrated in an orthotopic model. Overall, escin counteracted osteosarcoma by inducing autophagy and apoptosis via the activation of the ROS/p38 MAPK signalling pathway; these findings provide evidence for escin as a novel and potent therapeutic for the treatment of osteosarcoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhu
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Wei Yu
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Bing Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Yitian Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Jianlin Shao
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Junjie Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Kaishun Xia
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Chengzhen Liang
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Weijing Fang
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Chenhe Zhou
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| | - Huimin Tao
- Department of Orthopedics, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, #88 Jie Fang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, PR China.,Orthopedics Research Institute of Zhejiang University, #88, Jiefang Road, Hangzhou 310009, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Arieli R. Nanobubbles Form at Active Hydrophobic Spots on the Luminal Aspect of Blood Vessels: Consequences for Decompression Illness in Diving and Possible Implications for Autoimmune Disease-An Overview. Front Physiol 2017; 8:591. [PMID: 28861003 PMCID: PMC5559548 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Decompression illness (DCI) occurs following a reduction in ambient pressure. Decompression bubbles can expand and develop only from pre-existing gas micronuclei. The different hypotheses hitherto proposed regarding the nucleation and stabilization of gas micronuclei have never been validated. It is known that nanobubbles form spontaneously when a smooth hydrophobic surface is submerged in water containing dissolved gas. These nanobubbles may be the long sought-after gas micronuclei underlying decompression bubbles and DCI. We exposed hydrophobic and hydrophilic silicon wafers under water to hyperbaric pressure. After decompression, bubbles appeared on the hydrophobic but not the hydrophilic wafers. In a further series of experiments, we placed large ovine blood vessels in a cooled high pressure chamber at 1,000 kPa for about 20 h. Bubbles evolved at definite spots in all the types of blood vessels. These bubble-producing spots stained positive for lipids, and were henceforth termed “active hydrophobic spots” (AHS). The lung surfactant dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), was found both in the plasma of the sheep and at the AHS. Bubbles detached from the blood vessel in pulsatile flow after reaching a mean diameter of ~1.0 mm. Bubble expansion was bi-phasic—a slow initiation phase which peaked 45 min after decompression, followed by fast diffusion-controlled growth. Many features of decompression from diving correlate with this finding of AHS on the blood vessels. (1) Variability between bubblers and non-bubblers. (2) An age-related effect and adaptation. (3) The increased risk of DCI on a second dive. (4) Symptoms of neurologic decompression sickness. (5) Preconditioning before a dive. (6) A bi-phasic mechanism of bubble expansion. (7) Increased bubble formation with depth. (8) Endothelial injury. (9) The presence of endothelial microparticles. Finally, constant contact between nanobubbles and plasma may result in distortion of proteins and their transformation into autoantigens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ran Arieli
- Israel Naval Medical Institute, Israel Defence ForceHaifa, Israel.,Eliachar Research Laboratory, Western Galilee Medical CenterNahariya, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Zhang K, Wang M, Wang H, Liu Y, Buzzacott P, Xu W. Time Course of Endothelial Dysfunction Induced by Decompression Bubbles in Rats. Front Physiol 2017; 8:181. [PMID: 28386238 PMCID: PMC5362629 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Decompression stress can cause endothelial injury, leading to systematic inflammation and prothrombotic phenomena. Our previous work found that endothelial injury following decompression correlated positively with bubble formation. This study aimed to investigate the time course of endothelial injury and the relationship with bubble amounts. Rats were subjected to a simulated air dive to 7 ATA for 90 min with rapid decompression. Bubbles were detected ultrasonically at the root of pulmonary arteries following decompression. Surviving rats were randomly divided into six groups according to sampling time following decompression (2, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h). Three parameters, serum levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), endothelin-1 (ET-1), and intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) were identified from our previous study and measured. The level of MDA reached a peak level at 12 h post decompression, and then decreased gradually to control level before 72 h. For both ET-1 and ICAM-1, the greatest expression appeared at 24 h following surfacing, and the increases lasted for more than 72 h. These changes correlated positively with bubble counts at most detection time points. This study reveals the progress of endothelial dysfunction following decompression which provides guidance for timing the determination at least for the current model. The results further verify that bubbles are the causative agents of decompression induced endothelial damage and bubble amounts are an objective and suitable parameter to predict endothelial dysfunction. Most importantly, levels of endothelial biomarkers post dive may serve as sensitive parameters for assessing bubble load and decompression stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kun Zhang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University Shanghai, China
| | - Mengmeng Wang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University Shanghai, China
| | - Haowen Wang
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University Shanghai, China
| | - Yinuo Liu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University Shanghai, China
| | - Peter Buzzacott
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical UniversityShanghai, China; School of Sports Science, Exercise and Health, University of Western AustraliaPerth, WA, Australia
| | - Weigang Xu
- Department of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|