1
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Goodale E, Magrath RD. Species diversity and interspecific information flow. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:999-1014. [PMID: 38279871 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/29/2024]
Abstract
Interspecific information flow is known to affect individual fitness, population dynamics and community assembly, but there has been less study of how species diversity affects information flow and thereby ecosystem functioning and services. We address this question by first examining differences among species in the sensitivity, accuracy, transmissibility, detectability and value of the cues and signals they produce, and in how they receive, store and use information derived from heterospecifics. We then review how interspecific information flow occurs in communities, involving a diversity of species and sensory modes, and how this flow can affect ecosystem-level functions, such as decomposition, seed dispersal or algae removal on coral reefs. We highlight evidence that some keystone species are particularly critical as a source of information used by eavesdroppers, and so have a disproportionate effect on information flow. Such keystone species include community informants producing signals, particularly about predation risk, that influence other species' landscapes of fear, and aggregation initiators creating cues or signals about resources. We suggest that the presence of keystone species means that there will likely be a positive relationship in many communities between species diversity and information through a 'sampling effect', in which larger pools of species are more likely to include the keystone species by chance. We then consider whether the number and relative abundance of species, irrespective of the presence of keystone species, matter to interspecific information flow; on this issue, the theory is less developed, and the evidence scant and indirect. Higher diversity could increase the quantity or quality of information that is used by eavesdroppers because redundancy increases the reliability of information or because the species provide complementary information. Alternatively, there could be a lack of a relationship between species diversity and information if there is widespread information parasitism where users are not sources, or if information sourced from heterospecifics is of lower value than that gained personally or sourced from conspecifics. Recent research suggests that species diversity does have information-modulated community and ecosystem consequences, especially in birds, such as the diversity of species at feeders increasing resource exploitation, or the number of imitated species increasing responses to vocal mimics. A first step for future research includes comprehensive observations of information flow among different taxa and habitats. Then studies should investigate whether species diversity influences the cumulative quality or quantity of information at the community level, and consequently ecosystem-level processes. An applied objective is to conserve species in part for their value as sources of information for other species, including for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eben Goodale
- Department of Health and Environmental Science, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Robert D Magrath
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2600, Australia
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2
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Freeberg TM, Adams CB, Price CA, Papeş M. Mixed-species flock sizes and compositions influence flock members' success in three field experiments with novel feeders. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0301270. [PMID: 38722951 PMCID: PMC11081282 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0301270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Mixed-species groups and aggregations are quite common and may provide substantial fitness-related benefits to group members. Individuals may benefit from the overall size of the mixed-species group or from the diversity of species present, or both. Here we exposed mixed-species flocks of songbirds (Carolina chickadees, Poecile carolinensis, tufted titmice, Baeolophus bicolor, and the satellite species attracted to these two species) to three different novel feeder experiments to assess the influence of mixed-species flock size and composition on ability to solve the feeder tasks. We also assessed the potential role of habitat density and traffic noise on birds' ability to solve these tasks. We found that likelihood of solving a novel feeder task was associated with mixed-species flock size and composition, though the specific social factor involved depended on the particular species and on the novel feeder. We did not find an influence of habitat density or background traffic noise on likelihood of solving novel feeder tasks. Overall, our results reveal the importance of variation in mixed-species group size and diversity on foraging success in these songbirds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd M. Freeberg
- Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States of America
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States of America
| | - Colton B. Adams
- Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States of America
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States of America
| | - Charles A. Price
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States of America
| | - Monica Papeş
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States of America
- National Institute for Mathematical & Biological Synthesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States of America
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3
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Mangini GG, Rutt CL, Sridhar H, Buitron G, Muñoz J, Robinson SK, Montaño-Centellas F, Zarco A, Fanjul ME, Fernández-Arellano G, Xing S, Camerlenghi E. A classification scheme for mixed-species bird flocks. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220100. [PMID: 37066650 PMCID: PMC10107246 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The literature on mixed-species flocks references a wide variety of bird associations. These studies, however, have used an array of unstructured characteristics to describe flocks, ranging from the temporal occurrence of flocking to the identity and behavioural features of constituent members, with little consensus on which key traits define and characterize a mixed-species flock. Moreover, although most studies report species-specific roles, there is no clear consensus about what these roles signify nor how to define them. This lack of consistency limits our ability to compare flocks from different habitats, regions and species pools. To unify this sizable body of literature, we reviewed and synthesized 538 studies on mixed-species flocks. We propose 13 categories to classify mixed-species flocks using behavioural and physical traits at the flock and participant level, as well as the habitat where the flock occurs. Lastly, we discuss the historical terminology for different species roles and propose definitions to clarify and distinguish among nuclear, leader, sentinel, and flock-following species. We envision that these guidelines will provide a universal language for mixed-species flock research, paving the way for future comparisons and new insight between different regions and systems. This article is part of the theme issue 'Mixed-species groups and aggregations: shaping ecological and behavioural patterns and processes'.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. Giselle Mangini
- Instituto de Ecologia Regional (IER) CONICET-UNT, 4107 Yerba Buena, Argentina
| | | | - Hari Sridhar
- Independent Researcher, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560003, India
- Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Galo Buitron
- Universidad Estatal Amazónica-Sede Académica El Pangui, Zamora Chinchipe, 190401, Ecuador
| | - Jenny Muñoz
- University of British Columbia Biodiversity Research Center, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Scott K. Robinson
- Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | | | - Agustin Zarco
- Instituto Argentino de Investigación en las Zonas Áridas (IADIZA) CONICET, 5500 Mendoza, Argentina
- Fundación de Historia Natural Félix de Azara, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M. Elisa Fanjul
- Instituto de Vertebrados, Zoología, Fundación Miguel Lillo, 4000 Tucumán, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e IML – Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, 4000 Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Gilberto Fernández-Arellano
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso – UFMT, 78060-900 Cuiabá, Brazil
| | - Shuang Xing
- School of Ecology, Sun Yat-sen University, 518107 Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ettore Camerlenghi
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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4
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Freeberg TM, Coppinger BA, Eppert SK. Mixed-species flock composition matters: interspecific influences on finding novel food in North American parids. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220113. [PMID: 37066645 PMCID: PMC10107226 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Individuals of a wide range of species are sensitive to the presence of other species, and can often benefit from associations with other species in mixed-species groups (MSGs) through food-finding or avoiding predation. In an earlier field study, we found that both Carolina chickadees, Poecile carolinensis, and tufted titmice, Baeolphus bicolor, were better able to solve a novel feeder task when their MSGs were more diverse in terms of species composition. Like most studies of MSGs, however, that earlier study did not experimentally manipulate MSG size and composition. We did that manipulation here, providing experimental flocks of chickadees and titmice with three novel feeder tasks in semi-natural aviary environments. We found that successful titmouse flocks generally had a higher proportion of titmice in them, going against the findings of our earlier field study. Conversely, successful chickadee flocks solved one of the novel feeder tasks more quickly with a higher proportion of titmice in them, corroborating the findings of our earlier field study. We now need to assess socio-ecological influences on MSG size and composition, and how those relate to individual behaviour. This article is part of the theme issue 'Mixed-species groups and aggregations: shaping ecological and behavioural patterns and processes'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd M. Freeberg
- Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Brittany A. Coppinger
- Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
- Department of Biology, Villanova University, Villanova, PA 19085, USA
| | - Shannon K. Eppert
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA 22807, USA
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5
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Refining the stress gradient hypothesis for mixed species groups of African mammals. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17715. [PMID: 36271133 PMCID: PMC9587046 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-22593-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Species interactions such as facilitation and predation influence food webs, yet it is unclear how they are mediated by environmental gradients. Here we test the stress gradient hypothesis which predicts that positive species interactions increase with stress. Drawing upon spatially-explicit data of large mammals in an African savanna, we tested how predation risk and primary productivity mediate the occurrence of mixed species groups. Controlling for habitat structure, predation risk by lions and primary productivity affected the frequency of mixed species groups in species-specific ways, likely reflecting distinct stress perceptions. To test whether mixed species groups indicate positive interactions, we conducted network analyses for specific scenarios. Under predation risk, dyadic associations with giraffes were more pronounced and metrics of animal networks changed markedly. However, dyadic association and network metrics were weakly mediated by primary productivity. The composition of mixed species groups was associated with similarities in prey susceptibility but not with similarities in feeding habits of herbivores. Especially predation risk favoured the frequency of mixed species groups and pronounced dyadic associations which dilute predation risk and increase predator detection. While our results provide support for the stress gradient hypothesis, they also highlight that the relative importance of stressors is context-dependent.
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6
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Bai J, Freeberg TM, Lucas JR, Sieving KE. A community context for aggression? Multi-species audience effects on territorial aggression in two species of Paridae. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:5305-5319. [PMID: 34026008 PMCID: PMC8131767 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Territorial aggression in birds is widely observed and is commonly linked to sex, age, body size, physiology, seasonal cues, food resource, urbanization, and a variety of social contexts including conspecific audience effects. However, little is known about the heterospecific audience effects on territorial aggression.Here, we address an emerging idea that heterospecific audience effects may be pervasive influences in the social lives of free-living birds. We tested the hypothesis that the composition, number, and relative body size of heterospecific audiences observing an aggressive contest will influence the response probability and intensity of aggression displayed.We subjected two Paridae species, tufted titmouse (TUTI, Baeolophus bicolor) and Carolina chickadee (CACH, Poecile carolinensis), to playbacks of aggressive calls during a breeding season in north-central Florida. At widely spaced playback sites (N = 134) in woodland habitats, we characterized the makeup of heterospecific audiences, aggression type (intra vs. interspecific territoriality), local population density, and various environmental factors (tree density, wind speed, and noise level) that are likely to influence territorial aggression.We found that the presence of heterospecific audiences increased TUTI aggression levels and that both parids were more likely to respond to playback stimuli when their audiences had higher heterospecific diversity (more heterospecific individuals and species). We also found TUTI were more likely to respond when CACH were present but not vice versa.In conclusion, we found evidence that heterospecific audiences significantly influenced the metrics of territorial aggression of free-living animals and we suggest that the definition of audience effects on the behavior of free-living animals be expanded to incorporate heterospecific audiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Bai
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and ConservationUniversity of FloridaGainesvilleFLUSA
| | - Todd M. Freeberg
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of Tennessee – KnoxvilleKnoxvilleTNUSA
| | - Jeffrey R. Lucas
- Department of Biological SciencesPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
| | - Kathryn E. Sieving
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and ConservationUniversity of FloridaGainesvilleFLUSA
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7
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Coppinger BA, Kania SA, Lucas JR, Sieving KE, Freeberg TM. Experimental manipulation of mixed-species flocks reveals heterospecific audience effects on calling. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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8
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Cantor M, Aplin LM, Farine DR. A primer on the relationship between group size and group performance. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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9
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Goodale E, Sridhar H, Sieving KE, Bangal P, Colorado Z GJ, Farine DR, Heymann EW, Jones HH, Krams I, Martínez AE, Montaño-Centellas F, Muñoz J, Srinivasan U, Theo A, Shanker K. Mixed company: a framework for understanding the composition and organization of mixed-species animal groups. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:889-910. [PMID: 32097520 PMCID: PMC7383667 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 02/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Mixed-species animal groups (MSGs) are widely acknowledged to increase predator avoidance and foraging efficiency, among other benefits, and thereby increase participants' fitness. Diversity in MSG composition ranges from two to 70 species of very similar or completely different phenotypes. Yet consistency in organization is also observable in that one or a few species usually have disproportionate importance for MSG formation and/or maintenance. We propose a two-dimensional framework for understanding this diversity and consistency, concentrating on the types of interactions possible between two individuals, usually of different species. One axis represents the similarity of benefit types traded between the individuals, while the second axis expresses asymmetry in the relative amount of benefits/costs accrued. Considering benefit types, one extreme represents the case of single-species groups wherein all individuals obtain the same supplementary, group-size-related benefits, and the other extreme comprises associations of very different, but complementary species (e.g. one partner creates access to food while the other provides vigilance). The relevance of social information and the matching of activities (e.g. speed of movement) are highest for relationships on the supplementary side of this axis, but so is competition; relationships between species will occur at points along this gradient where the benefits outweigh the costs. Considering benefit amounts given or received, extreme asymmetry occurs when one species is exclusively a benefit provider and the other a benefit user. Within this parameter space, some MSG systems are constrained to one kind of interaction, such as shoals of fish of similar species or leader-follower interactions in fish and other taxa. Other MSGs, such as terrestrial bird flocks, can simultaneously include a variety of supplementary and complementary interactions. We review the benefits that species obtain across the diversity of MSG types, and argue that the degree and nature of asymmetry between benefit providers and users should be measured and not just assumed. We then discuss evolutionary shifts in MSG types, focusing on drivers towards similarity in group composition, and selection on benefit providers to enhance the benefits they can receive from other species. Finally, we conclude by considering how individual and collective behaviour in MSGs may influence both the structure and processes of communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eben Goodale
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530004, China
| | - Hari Sridhar
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560012, India.,National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560012, India
| | - Kathryn E Sieving
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, U.S.A
| | - Priti Bangal
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560012, India
| | - Gabriel J Colorado Z
- Departamento de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, 050034, Colombia
| | - Damien R Farine
- Department of Collective Behavior, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Universitätsstrasse 10, D-78464, Konstanz, Germany.,Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, D-78464, Konstanz, Germany.,Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, D-78464, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Eckhard W Heymann
- Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Leibniz-Institut für Primatenforschung, D-37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Harrison H Jones
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, U.S.A.,Florida Museum of Natural History, Gainesville, FL, 32611, U.S.A
| | - Indrikis Krams
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, 51410, Estonia.,Department of Zoology and Animal Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Rīga, 1004, Latvia
| | - Ari E Martínez
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, CA, 90840, U.S.A
| | - Flavia Montaño-Centellas
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, U.S.A.,Instituto de Ecologia, Universidad Mayor de San Andres, La Paz, 10077, Bolivia
| | - Jenny Muñoz
- Zoology Department and Biodiversity Research Center, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1ZA, Canada
| | - Umesh Srinivasan
- Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08540, U.S.A
| | - Anne Theo
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560012, India
| | - Kartik Shanker
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560012, India.,Dakshin Foundation, Bengaluru, 560092, India
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10
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Hare JF, Sarà M, Hare AJ, Campobello D. Asymmetrical interspecific communication of predatory threat in mixed‐species colonies of lesser kestrels (
Falco naumanni
) and jackdaws (
Corvus monedula
). Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James F. Hare
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
| | - Maurizio Sarà
- Section of Animal Biology, Department STEBICEF University of Palermo Palermo Italy
| | - Alexander J. Hare
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Manitoba Winnipeg Manitoba Canada
- Department of Integrative Biology University of Guelph Guelph Ontario Canada
| | - Daniela Campobello
- Section of Animal Biology, Department STEBICEF University of Palermo Palermo Italy
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11
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O'Keefe RJ. Embracing Differences to Improve Success: American Orthopaedic Association Presidential Address, Boston, Massachusetts, June 23, 2017: AOA Critical Issues. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2019; 101:e37. [PMID: 31045676 DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.19.00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Regis J O'Keefe
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
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12
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Suzuki TN, Kutsukake N. Foraging intention affects whether willow tits call to attract members of mixed-species flocks. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:170222. [PMID: 28680675 PMCID: PMC5493917 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how individual behaviour influences the spatial and temporal distribution of other species is necessary to resolve the complex structure of species assemblages. Mixed-species bird flocks provide an ideal opportunity to investigate this issue, because members of the flocks are involved in a variety of behavioural interactions between species. Willow tits (Poecile montanus) often produce loud calls when visiting a new foraging patch to recruit other members of mixed-species flocks. The costs and benefits of flocking would differ with individual foraging behaviours (i.e. immediate consumption or caching); thus, willow tits may adjust the production of loud calls according to their foraging intention. In this study, we investigated the link between foraging decisions and calling behaviour in willow tits and tested its influence on the temporal cohesion with members of mixed-species flocks. Observations at experimental foraging patches showed that willow tits produced more calls when they consumed food items compared with when they cached them. Playback experiments revealed that these calls attracted flock members and helped to maintain their presence at foraging patches. Thus, willow tits adjusted calling behaviour according to their foraging intention, thereby coordinating the associations with members of mixed-species flocks. Our findings demonstrate the influence of individual decision-making on temporal cohesion with other species and highlight the importance of interspecific communication in mixed-species flocking dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshitaka N. Suzuki
- Center for Ecological Research, Kyoto University, 2-509-3 Hirano, Otsu, Shiga 520-2113, Japan
- Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Hayama, Kanagawa 240-0193, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Kutsukake
- Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Hayama, Kanagawa 240-0193, Japan
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