DNA interference-mediated screening of maternal factors in the chordate Oikopleura dioica

Developmental biology of the larvacean Oikopleura dioica: Genome resources, functional screening, and imaging

The larvacean Oikopleura dioica is a cosmopolitan planktonic chordate and is closely related to vertebrates. It is characterized by a tadpole-shaped morphology with notochord flanked by muscle in the tail and brain on the dorsal side, a short life cycle of five days, a compact genome of approximately 56 Mb, a simple and transparent body with a small number of cells (~4000 in functional juveniles), invariant embryonic cell lineages, and fast development that ensures complete morphogenesis and organ formation 10 h after fertilization. With these features, this marine chordate is a promising and advantageous animal model in which genetic manipulation is feasible. In this review, we introduce relevant resources and modern techniques that have been developed: (1) Genome and transcriptomes. Oikopleura dioica has the smallest genome among non-parasitic metazoans. Its genome databases have been generated using three geographically distant O. dioica populations, and several intra-species sequence differences are becoming evident; (2) Functional genetic knockdown techniques. Comprehensive screening of genes is feasible using ovarian microinjection and double-strand DNA-induced gene knockdown; and (3) Live imaging of embryos and larvae. Application of these techniques has uncovered novel aspects of development, including meiotic cell arrest, left-right patterning, epidermal cell patterning, and mouth formation involving the connection of ectoderm and endoderm sheets. Oikopleura dioca has become very useful for developmental and evolutionary studies in chordates.

Nkx2-1 and FoxE regionalize glandular (mucus-producing) and thyroid-equivalent traits in the endostyle of the chordate Oikopleura dioica

The endostyle is a ventral pharyngeal organ used for internal filter feeding of basal chordates and is considered homologous to the follicular thyroid of vertebrates. It contains mucus-producing (glandular) and thyroid-equivalent regions organized along the dorsoventral (DV) axis. Although thyroid-related genes (Nkx2-1, FoxE, and thyroid peroxidase (TPO)) are known to be expressed in the endostyle, their roles in establishing regionalization within the organ have not been demonstrated. We report that Nkx2-1 and FoxE are essential for establishing DV axial identity in the endostyle of Oikopleura dioica. Genome and expression analyses showed von Willebrand factor-like (vWFL) and TPO/dual oxidase (Duox)/Nkx2-1/FoxE as orthologs of glandular and thyroid-related genes, respectively. Knockdown experiments showed that Nkx2-1 is necessary for the expression of glandular and thyroid-related genes, whereas FoxE is necessary only for thyroid-related genes. Moreover, Nkx2-1 expression is necessary for FoxE expression in larvae during organogenesis. The results demonstrate the essential roles of Nkx2-1 and FoxE in establishing regionalization in the endostyle, including (1) the Nkx2-1-dependent glandular region, and (2) the Nkx2-1/FoxE-dependent thyroid-equivalent region. DV axial regionalization may be responsible for organizing glandular and thyroid-equivalent traits of the pharynx along the DV axis.

Massive Gene Loss and Function Shuffling in Appendicularians Stretch the Boundaries of Chordate Wnt Family Evolution

Gene loss is a pervasive source of genetic variation that influences species evolvability, biodiversity and the innovation of evolutionary adaptations. To better understand the evolutionary patterns and impact of gene loss, here we investigate as a case study the evolution of the wingless (Wnt) family in the appendicularian tunicate Oikopleura dioica, an emergent EvoDevo model characterized by its proneness to lose genes among chordates. Genome survey and phylogenetic analyses reveal that only four of the thirteen Wnt subfamilies have survived in O. dioica—Wnt5, Wnt10, Wnt11, and Wnt16,—representing the minimal Wnt repertoire described in chordates. While the loss of Wnt4 and Wnt8 likely occurred in the last common ancestor of tunicates, representing therefore a synapomorphy of this subphylum, the rest of losses occurred during the evolution of appendicularians. This work provides the first complete Wnt developmental expression atlas in a tunicate and the first insights into the evolution of Wnt developmental functions in appendicularians. Our work highlights three main evolutionary patterns of gene loss: (1) conservation of ancestral Wnt expression domains not affected by gene losses; (2) function shuffling among Wnt paralogs accompanied by gene losses; and (3) extinction of Wnt expression in certain embryonic directly correlated with gene losses. Overall our work reveals that in contrast to “conservative” pattern of evolution of cephalochordates and vertebrates, O. dioica shows an even more radical “liberal” evolutionary pattern than that described ascidian tunicates, stretching the boundaries of the malleability of Wnt family evolution in chordates.

A genome database for a Japanese population of the larvacean Oikopleura dioica

The larvacean Oikopleura dioica is a planktonic chordate and is a tunicate that belongs to the closest relatives to vertebrates. Its simple and transparent body, invariant embryonic cell lineages, and short life cycle of 5 days make it a promising model organism for the study of developmental biology. The genome browser OikoBase was established in 2013 using Norwegian O. dioica. However, genome information for other populations is not available, even though many researchers have studied local populations. In the present study, we sequenced using Illumina and PacBio RSII technologies the genome of O. dioica from a southwestern Japanese population that was cultured in our laboratory for 3 years. The genome of Japanese O. dioica was assembled into 576 scaffold sequences with a total length and N50 length of 56.6 and 1.5 Mb, respectively. A total of 18,743 gene models (transcript models) were predicted in the genome assembly, named OSKA2016. In addition, 19,277 non-redundant transcripts were assembled using RNA-seq data. The OSKA2016 has global sequence similarity of only 86.5% when compared with the OikoBase, highlighting the sequence difference between the two far distant O. dioica populations on the globe. The genome assembly, transcript assembly, and transcript models were incorporated into ANISEED (https://www.aniseed.cnrs.fr/) for genome browsing and BLAST searches. Mapping of reads obtained from male- or female-specific genome libraries yielded male-specific scaffolds in the OSKA2016 and revealed that over 2.6 Mb of sequence were included in the male-specific Y-region. The genome and transcriptome resources from two distinct populations will be useful datasets for developmental biology, evolutionary biology, and molecular ecology using this model organism.

Protein phosphatase 2A is essential to maintain meiotic arrest, and to prevent Ca2+ burst at spawning and eventual parthenogenesis in the larvacean Oikopleura dioica

Unfertilized eggs of most animals are arrested at a certain point in the meiotic cell cycles. Reinitiation of meiosis and the start of embryogenesis are triggered by fertilization. This arrest is essential for preventing parthenogenetic activation and for promoting proper initiation of development by fertilization. In the larvacean Oikopleura dioica, which is a simple model organism for studies of chordate development, the unfertilized egg is arrested at metaphase of meiosis I. We show here that protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is essential for maintenance of meiotic arrest after spawning of oocytes. Knockdown (KD) of the maternal PP2A catalytic subunit, which was found in functional screening of maternal factors, caused unfertilized eggs to spontaneously release polar bodies after spawning, and then start pseudo-cleavages without fertilization, namely, parthenogenesis. Parthenogenetic embryos failed to undergo proper mitosis and cytokinesis because of lack of a centrosome, which is to be brought into the egg by a sperm. Activation of the KD oocytes was triggered by possible rise of ambient and intracellular pH upon their release from the gonad into seawater at spawning. Live recording of intracellular calcium level of the KD oocytes indicated that the pH rise caused an aberrant Ca²⁺ burst, which mimicked the Ca²⁺ burst that occurs at fertilization. Then, the aberrant Ca²⁺ burst triggered meiosis resumption through Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK II). Therefore, PP2A is essential for maintenance of meiotic arrest and prevention of parthenogenesis by suppressing the aberrant Ca²⁺ burst at spawning.

Oikopleura dioica: An Emergent Chordate Model to Study the Impact of Gene Loss on the Evolution of the Mechanisms of Development

The urochordate Oikopleura dioica is emerging as a nonclassical animal model in the field of evolutionary developmental biology (a.k.a. evo-devo) especially attractive for investigating the impact of gene loss on the evolution of mechanisms of development. This is because this organism fulfills the requirements of an animal model (i.e., has a simple and accessible morphology, a short generation time and life span, and affordable culture in the laboratory and amenable experimental manipulation), but also because O. dioica occupies a key phylogenetic position to understand the diversification and origin of our own phylum, the chordates. During its evolution, O. dioica genome has suffered a drastic process of compaction, becoming the smallest known chordate genome, a process that has been accompanied by exacerbating amount of gene losses. Interestingly, however, despite the extensive gene losses, including entire regulatory pathways essential for the embryonic development of other chordates, O. dioica retains the typical chordate body plan. This unexpected situation led to the formulation of the so-called inverse paradox of evo-devo, that is, when a genetic diversity is able to maintain a phenotypic unity. This chapter reviews the biological features of O. dioica as a model animal, along with the current data on the evolution of its genes and genome. We pay special attention to the numerous examples of gene losses that have taken place during the evolution of this unique animal model, which is helping us to understand to which the limits of evo-devo can be pushed off.