Photochromic chromopeptides derived from phycoerythrocyanin: biophysical and biochemical characterization

Phycobiliproteins from extreme environments and their potential applications

The light-harvesting phycobilisome complex is an important component of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria and red algae. Phycobilisomes are composed of phycobiliproteins, including the blue phycobiliprotein phycocyanin, that are considered high-value products with applications in several industries. Remarkably, several cyanobacteria and red algal species retain the capacity to harvest light and photosynthesise under highly selective environments such as hot springs, and flourish in extremes of pH and elevated temperatures. These thermophilic organisms produce thermostable phycobiliproteins, which have superior qualities much needed for wider adoption of these natural pigment-proteins in the food, textile, and other industries. Here we review the available literature on the thermostability of phycobilisome components from thermophilic species and discuss how a better appreciation of phycobiliproteins from extreme environments will benefit our fundamental understanding of photosynthetic adaptation and could provide a sustainable resource for several industrial processes.

A stable and functional single peptide phycoerythrin (15.45 kDa) from Lyngbya sp. A09DM

A functional and stable truncated-phycoerythrin (T-PE) was found as a result of spontaneous in vitro truncation. Truncation was noticed to occur during storage of purified native-phycoerythrin (N-PE) isolated from Lyngbya sp. A09DM. SDS and native-PAGE analysis revealed the truncation of N-PE, containing α (19.0 kDa)--and β (21.5 kDa)--subunits to the only single peptide of ∼15.45 kDa (T-PE). The peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) and MS/MS analysis indicated that T-PE is the part of α-subunit of N-PE. UV-visible absorption peak of N-PE was found to split into two peaks (540 and 565 nm) after truncation, suggesting the alterations in its folded state. The emission spectra of both N-PE and T-PE show the emission band centered at 581 nm (upon excitation at 559 nm) suggested the maintenance of fluorescence even after significant truncation. Urea-induced denaturation and Gibbs-free energy (ΔGD°) calculations suggested that the folding and structural stability of T-PE was almost similar to that of N-PE. Presented bunch of evidences revealed the truncation in N-PE without perturbing its folding, structural stability and functionality (fluorescence), and thereby suggested its applicability in fluorescence based biomedical techniques where smaller fluorescence molecules are more preferable.

Molecular insights into the terminal energy acceptor in cyanobacterial phycobilisome

The linker protein L(CM) (ApcE) is postulated as the major component of the phycobilisome terminal energy acceptor (TEA) transferring excitation energy from the phycobilisome to photosystem II. L(CM) is the only phycobilin-attached linker protein in the cyanobacterial phycobilisome through auto-chromophorylation. However, the underlying mechanism for the auto-chromophorylation of L(CM) and the detailed molecular architecture of TEA is still unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the N-terminal phycobiliprotein-like domain of L(CM) (Pfam00502, LP502) can specifically recognize phycocyanobilin (PCB) by itself. Biochemical assays indicated that PCB binds into the same pocket in LP502 as that in the allophycocyanin α-subunit and that Ser152 and Asp155 play a vital role in LP502 auto-chromophorylation. By carefully conducting computational simulations, we arrived at a rational model of the PCB-LP502 complex structure that was supported by extensive mutational studies. In the PCB-LP502 complex, PCB binds into a deep pocket of LP502 with a distorted conformation, and Ser152 and Asp155 form several hydrogen bonds to PCB fixing the PCB Ring A and Ring D. Finally, based on our results, the dipoles and dipole-dipole interactions in TEA are analysed and a molecular structure for TEA is proposed, which gives new insights into the energy transformation mechanism of cyanobacterial phycobilisome.

A minimal phycobilisome: fusion and chromophorylation of the truncated core-membrane linker and phycocyanin

Phycobilisomes, the light-harvesting antennas in cyanobacteria and red algae, consist of an allophycocyanin core that is attached to the membrane via a core-membrane linker, and rods comprised of phycocyanin and often also phycoerythrin or phycoerythrocyanin. Phycobiliproteins show excellent energy transfer among the chromophores that renders them biomarkers with large Stokes-shifts absorbing over most of the visible spectrum and into the near infrared. Their application is limited, however, due to covalent binding of the chromophores and by solubility problems. We report construction of a water-soluble minimal chromophore-binding unit of the red-absorbing and fluorescing core-membrane linker. This was fused to minimal chromophore-binding units of phycocyanin. After double chromophorylation with phycocyanobilin, in E. coli, the fused phycobiliproteins absorbed light in the range of 610-660nm, and fluoresced at ~670nm, similar to phycobilisomes devoid of phycoerythr(ocyan)in. The fused phycobiliprotein could also be doubly chromophorylated with phycoerythrobilin, resulting in a chromoprotein absorbing around 540-575nm, and fluorescing at ~585nm. The broad absorptions and the large Stokes shifts render these chromoproteins candidates for imaging; they may also be helpful in studying phycobilisome assembly.

Attachment of noncognate chromophores to CpcA of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002 by heterologous expression in Escherichia coli

Many cyanobacteria use brilliantly pigmented, multisubunit macromolecular structures known as phycobilisomes as antenna to enhance light harvesting for photosynthesis. Recent studies have defined the enzymes that synthesize phycobilin chromophores as well as many of the phycobilin lyase enzymes that attach these chromophores to their cognate apoproteins. The ability of the phycocyanin α-subunit (CpcA) to bind alternative linear tetrapyrrole chromophores was examined through the use of a heterologous expression system in Escherichia coli. E. coli strains produced phycocyanobilin, phytochromobilin, or phycoerythrobilin when they expressed 3Z-phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PcyA), 3Z-phytochromobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (HY2) from Arabidopsis thaliana, or phycoerythrobilin synthase (PebS) from the myovirus P-SSM4, respectively. CpcA from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 or Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002 was coexpressed in these strains with the phycocyanin α-subunit phycocyanobilin lyase, CpcE/CpcF, or the phycoerythrocyanin α-subunit phycocyanobilin isomerizing lyase, PecE/PecF, from Noctoc sp. PCC 7120. Both lyases were capable of attaching three different linear tetrapyrrole chromophores to CpcA; thus, up to six different CpcA variants, each with a unique chromophore, could be produced with this system. One of these chromophores, denoted phytoviolobilin, has not yet been observed naturally. The recombinant proteins had unexpected and potentially useful properties, which included very high fluorescence quantum yields and photochemical activity. Chimeric lyases PecE/CpcF and CpcE/PecF were used to show that the isomerizing activity that converts phycocyanobilin to phycoviolobilin resides with PecF and not PecE. Finally, spectroscopic properties of recombinant phycocyanin R-PCIII, in which the CpcA subunits carry a phycoerythrobilin chromophore, are described.

Functional biosynthesis of an allophycocyan beta subunit in Escherichia coli

Allophycocyanin is a phycobiliprotein with various biological and pharmacological properties. An expression vector was constructed using CpeS as the bilin lyase for the allophycocyanin beta subunit, resulting in overexpression of a fluorescent allophycocyanin beta-subunit in Escherichia coli. A high-density cell culture was developed using a continuous feeding strategy. After 16 h of culture, the dry cell density reached 21.4 g l(-1), the expression of the allophycocyanin beta-subunit was 0.86 g l(-1) broth, and the relative chromoprotein yield was 81.4%. The recombinant protein showed spectral features similar to native allophycocyanin, which provide an efficient methodology for large-scale production of this valuable fluorescent protein.

Local protein flexibility as a prerequisite for reversible chromophore isomerization in alpha-phycoerythrocyanin

Phycoerythrocyanin is the only cyanobacterial phycobiliprotein containing phycoviolobilin as a chromophore. The phycoviolobilin chromophore is photo-reactive; upon irradiation, the chromophore undergoes a Z/E-isomerization involving the rotation of pyrrole-ring D. We have determined the structure of trimeric phycoerythrocyanin at three different experimental settings: monochromatically at 110 K and 295 K as well as with the Laue method at 288 K. Based on their chemical structures, the restraints for the phycoviolobilin of the alpha-subunit and for the phycocyanobilin chromophores of the beta-subunit were newly generated, which allows a chemically meaningful refinement of both chromophores. All three phycoerythrocyanin structures are very similar; the subunits match within 0.5 A. The detailed comparison of the data obtained with the different measurements provided information about the protein properties around the phycoviolobilin chromophore. For the first time, crystals of a phycobilisome protein are used successfully with the Laue technique. This paves the way for time-resolved macromolecular crystallography, which is able to elucidate the exact mechanisms of the phycoviolobilin photoactivity including the protein involvement.