Excited states and energy transfer among DNA bases in double helices

The Ubiquity of High-Energy Nanosecond Fluorescence in DNA Duplexes

During the past few years, several studies reported that a significant part of the intrinsic fluorescence of DNA duplexes decays with surprisingly long lifetimes (1-3 ns) at wavelengths shorter than the ππ* emission of their monomeric constituents. This high-energy nanosecond emission (HENE), hardly discernible in the steady-state fluorescence spectra of most duplexes, was investigated by time-correlated single-photon counting. The ubiquity of HENE contrasts with the paradigm that the longest-lived excited states correspond to low-energy excimers/exciplexes. Interestingly, the latter were found to decay faster than the HENE. So far, the excited states responsible for HENE remain elusive. In order to foster future studies for their characterization, this Perspective presents a critical summary of the experimental observations and the first theoretical approaches. Moreover, some new directions for further work are outlined. Finally, the obvious need for computations of the fluorescence anisotropy considering the dynamic conformational landscape of duplexes is stressed.

High-Energy Long-Lived Emitting Mixed Excitons in Homopolymeric Adenine-Thymine DNA Duplexes

The publication deals with polymeric pA●pT and oligomeric A₂₀●T₂₀ DNA duplexes whose fluorescence is studied by time-correlated single photon counting. It is shown that their emission on the nanosecond timescale is largely dominated by high-energy components peaking at a wavelength shorter than 305 nm. Because of their anisotropy (0.02) and their sensitivity to base stacking, modulated by the duplex size and the ionic strength of the solution, these components are attributed to mixed ππ*/charge transfer excitons. As high-energy long-lived excited states may be responsible for photochemical reactions, their identification via theoretical studies is an important challenge.

Tuning the through-space charge transfer emission in triarylborane and triarylamine functionalized dipeptide organogels

We report herein a new class of either carbazolyl or BMes₂ (Mes = mesityl) group functionalized Boc-Lys(Z)-Phe-OMe (Z = carbobenzyloxy) dipeptides-Boc-Lys(Z)-Phe-C₅-carbazolyl (N2) and Boc-Lys(Z)-Phe-C₆-BMes₂ (B2). Both of the compounds are able to gel in several common aromatic solvents at low concentration. The photophysical studies reveal the existence of intense through space charge transfer interaction between the donor and acceptor units in the B2 and N2 based dual-component supramolecular organogels. Furthermore, by tuning the B2 : N2 ratios in the binary gels, both the maximum emission wavelength and the morphologies of the dual-component gels can be effectively modulated.

Dual Time-Scale Proton Transfer and High-Energy, Long-Lived Excitons Unveiled by Broadband Ultrafast Time-Resolved Fluorescence in Adenine-Uracil RNA Duplexes

In contrast to the immense amount of research on electronically excited DNA, surprisingly little has been done about the excited states of RNA. Herein, we demonstrate an ultrafast broadband time-resolved fluorescence and fluorescence anisotropy study to probe directly the intrinsic fluorescence and overall dynamics of the fluorescence from a homopolymeric adenine·uracil RNA duplex adopting the A-form structure. The results unveiled complex deactivation through distinctive multichannels mediated by states of varied energy, a character of charge transfer, and a lifetime from sub-picosecond to nanoseconds. In particular, we observed an unprecedented kinetic isotopic effect and participation of unusual proton transfer from states in two discrete energies and time domains. We also identified a high-energy nanosecond emission that we attributed to its fluorescence anisotropy to long-lived weakly emissive excitons not reported in DNA. These distinguishing features originate from the stacking, pairing, and local hydration environment specific to the A-form conformation of the adenine·uracil double helix.

Fundamentals of the Intrinsic DNA Fluorescence

The intrinsic fluorescence of nucleic acids is extremely weak compared to that of the fluorescent labels used to probe their structural and functional behavior. Thus, for technical reasons, the investigation of the intrinsic DNA fluorescence was limited for a long time. But with the improvement in spectroscopic techniques, the situation started to change around the turn of the century. During the past two decades, various factors modulating the static and dynamic properties of the DNA fluorescence have been determined; it was shown that, under certain conditions, quantum yields may be up 100 times higher than what was known so far. The ensemble of these studies opened up new paths for the development of label-free DNA fluorescence for biochemical applications. In parallel, these studies have shed new light on the primary processes leading to photoreactions that damage DNA when it absorbs UV radiation.We have been studying a variety of DNA systems, ranging from the monomeric nucleobases to double-stranded and four-stranded structures using fluorescence spectroscopy. The specificity of our work resides in the quantitative association of the steady-state fluorescence spectra with time-resolved data recorded from the femtosecond to the nanosecond timescales, made possible by the development of specific methodologies.Among others, our fluorescence studies provide information on the energy and the polarization of electronic transitions. These are valuable indicators for the evolution of electronic excitations in complex systems, where the electronic coupling between chromophores plays a key role. Highlighting collective effects that originate from electronic interactions in DNA multimers is the objective of the present Account.In contrast to the monomeric chromophores, whose fluorescence decays within a few picoseconds, that of DNA multimers persists on the nanosecond timescale. Even if long-lived states represent only a small fraction of electronic excitations, they may be crucial to the DNA photoreactivity because the probability to reach reactive conformations increases over time, owing to the incessant structural dynamics of nucleic acids.Our femtosecond studies have revealed that an ultrafast excitation energy transfer takes place among the nucleobases within duplexes and G-quadruplexes. Such an ultrafast process is possible when collective states are populated directly upon photon absorption. At much longer times, we discovered an unexpected long-lived high-energy emission stemming from what was coined "HELM excitons". These collective states, whose emission increases with the duplex size, could be responsible for the delayed fluorescence of ππ* states observed for genomic DNA.Most studies dealing with excited-state relaxation in DNA were carried out with excitation in the absorption band peaking at around 260 nm. We went beyond this and also performed the first time-resolved study with excitation in the UVA spectral range, where a very weak absorption tail is present. The resulting fluorescence decays are much slower and the fluorescence quantum yields are much higher than for UVC excitation. We showed that the base pairing of DNA strands enhances the UVA fluorescence and, in parallel, increases the photoreactivity because it modifies the nature of the involved collective excited states.

Electronic couplings for photo-induced processes from subsystem time-dependent density-functional theory: The role of the diabatization

Subsystem time-dependent density-functional theory (sTDDFT) making use of approximate non-additive kinetic energy (NAKE) functionals is known to be capable of describing excitation energy transfer processes in a variety of applications. Here, we show that sTDDFT, especially when combined with projection-based embedding (PbE), can be employed for the entire range of photo-induced electronic couplings essential for modeling photophysical properties of complex chemical and biological systems and therefore represents a complete toolbox for this class of problems. This means that it is capable of capturing the interaction/coupling associated with local- and charge-transfer (CT) excitons. However, this requires the choice of a reasonable diabatic basis. We therefore propose different diabatization strategies of the virtual orbital space in PbE-sTDDFT and show how CT excitations can be included in sTDDFT using NAKE functionals via a phenomenological approach. Finally, these electronic couplings are compared to couplings from a multistate fragment excitation difference (FED)-fragment charge difference (FCD) diabatization procedure. We show that both procedures, multistate FED-FCD and sTDDFT (with the right diabatization procedure chosen), lead to an overall good agreement for the electronic couplings, despite differences in their general diabatization strategy. We conclude that the entire range of photo-induced electronic couplings can be obtained using sTDDFT (with the right diabatization procedure chosen) in a black-box manner.

Excimer Intermediates en Route to Long-Lived Charge-Transfer States in Single-Stranded Adenine DNA as Revealed by Nonadiabatic Dynamics

The ultrafast time evolution of a single-stranded adenine DNA is studied using a hybrid multiscale quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) scheme coupled to nonadiabatic surface hopping dynamics. As a model, we use (dA)₂₀ where a stacked adenine tetramer is treated quantum chemically. The dynamical simulations combined with on-the-fly quantitative wave function analysis evidence the nature of the long-lived electronically excited states formed upon absorption of UV light. After a rapid decrease of the initially excited excitons, relaxation to monomer-like states and excimers occurs within 100 fs. The former monomeric states then relax into additional excimer states en route to forming stabilized charge-transfer states on a longer timescale of hundreds of femtoseconds. The different electronic-state characters is reflected on the spatial separation between the adenines: excimers and charge-transfer states show a much smaller spatial separation than the monomer-like states and the initially formed excitons.

Excitation energy transport in DNA modelled by multi-chromophoric field-induced surface hopping

Revealing the extended excited state lifetime due to excitation energy transport in DNA by multi-chromophoric field-induced surface-hopping (McFISH).

Exciton Absorption and Luminescence in i-Motif DNA

We have studied the excited-state dynamics for the i-motif form of cytosine chains (dC)10, using the ultrafast fluorescence up-conversion technique. We have also calculated vertical electronic transition energies and determined the nature of the corresponding excited states in a model tetramer i-motif structure. Quantum chemical calculations of the excitation spectrum of a tetramer i-motif structure predict a significant (0.3 eV) red shift of the lowest-energy transition in the i-motif form relative to its absorption maximum, which agrees with the experimental absorption spectrum. The lowest excitonic state in i-(dC)10 is responsible for a 2 ps red-shifted emission at 370 nm observed in the decay-associated spectra obtained on the femtosecond time-scale. This delocalized (excitonic) excited state is likely a precursor to a long-lived excimer state observed in previous studies. Another fast 310 fs component at 330 nm is assigned to a monomer-like locally excited state. Both emissive states form within less than the available time resolution of the instrument (100 fs). This work contributes to the understanding of excited-state dynamics of DNA within the first few picoseconds, which is the most interesting time range with respect to unraveling the photodamage mechanism, including the formation of the most dangerous DNA lesions such as cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers.

How nature covers its bases

The response of nucleobases to UV radiation depends on structure in subtle ways, as revealed by gas-phase experiments.

Electronic delocalization, charge transfer and hypochromism in the UV absorption spectrum of polyadenine unravelled by multiscale computations and quantitative wavefunction analysis

The characterization of the electronically excited states of DNA strands populated upon solar UV light absorption is essential to unveil light-induced DNA damage and repair processes. We report a comprehensive analysis of the electronic properties of the UV spectrum of single-stranded polyadenine based on theoretical calculations that include excitations over eight nucleobases of the DNA strand and environmental effects by a multiscale quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics scheme, conformational sampling by molecular dynamics, and a meaningful interpretation of the electronic structure by quantitative wavefunction analysis. We show that electronic excitations are extended mainly over two nucleobases with additional important contributions of monomer-like excitations and excitons delocalized over three monomers. Half of the spectral intensity derives from locally excited and Frenkel exciton states, while states with partial charge-transfer character account for the other half and pure charge-transfer states represent only a minor contribution. The hypochromism observed when going from the isolated monomer to the strand occurs independently from delocalization and charge transfer and is instead explained by long-range environmental perturbations of the monomer states.

Resolving Ultrafast Photoinduced Deactivations in Water-Solvated Pyrimidine Nucleosides

For the first time, ultrafast deactivations of photoexcited water-solvated pyrimidine nucleosides are mapped employing hybrid QM(CASPT2)/MM(AMBER) optimizations that account for explicit solvation, sugar effects, and dynamically correlated potential energy surfaces. Low-energy S₁/S₀ ring-puckering and ring-opening conical intersections (CIs) are suggested to drive the ballistic coherent subpicosecond (<200 fs) decays observed in each pyrimidine, the energetics controlling this processes correlating with the lifetimes observed. A second bright ¹π₂π* state, promoting excited-state population branching and leading toward a third CI with the ground state, is proposed to be involved in the slower ultrafast decay component observed in Thd/Cyd. The transient spectroscopic signals of the competitive deactivation channels are computed for the first time. A general unified scheme for ultrafast deactivations, spanning the sub- to few-picosecond time domain, is eventually delivered, with computed data that matches the experiments and elucidates the intrinsic photoprotection mechanism in solvated pyrimidine nucleosides.

Reaction Path Averaging: Characterizing the Structural Response of the DNA Double Helix to Electron Transfer

A polarizable environment, prominently the solvent, responds to electronic changes in biomolecules rapidly. The knowledge of conformational relaxation of the biomolecule itself, however, may be scarce or missing. In this work, we describe in detail the structural changes in DNA undergoing electron transfer between two adjacent nucleobases. We employ an approach based on averaging of tens to hundreds of thousands of nonequilibrium trajectories generated with molecular dynamics simulation, and a reduction of dimensionality suitable for DNA. We show that the conformational response of the DNA proceeds along a single collective coordinate that represents the relative orientation of two consecutive base pairs, namely, a combination of helical parameters shift and tilt. The structure of DNA relaxes on time scales reaching nanoseconds, contributing marginally to the relaxation of energies, which is dominated by the modes of motion of the aqueous solvent. The concept of reaction path averaging (RPA), conveniently exploited in this context, makes it possible to filter out any undesirable noise from the nonequilibrium data, and is applicable to any chemical process in general.

Subnanosecond Emission Dynamics of AT DNA Oligonucleotides

UV radiation creates excited electronic states in DNA that can decay to mutagenic photoproducts. When excited states return to the electronic ground state, photochemical injury is avoided. Understanding of the available relaxation pathways has advanced rapidly during the past decade, but there has been persistent uncertainty, and even controversy, over how to compare results from transient absorption and time-resolved emission experiments. Here, emission from single- and double-stranded AT DNA compounds excited at 265 nm was studied in aqueous solution using the time-correlated single photon counting technique. There is quantitative agreement between the emission lifetimes ranging from 50 to 200 ps and ones measured in transient absorption experiments, demonstrating that both techniques probe the same excited states. The results indicate that excitations with lifetimes of more than a few picoseconds are weakly emissive excimer and charge transfer states. Only a minute fraction of excitations persist beyond 1 ns in AT DNA strands at room temperature.

Photophysical deactivation pathways in adenine oligonucleotides

In this work we study deactivation processes in adenine oligomers after absorption of UV radiation using Quantum Mechanics combined with Molecular Mechanics (QM/MM). Correlated electronic structure methods appropriate for describing the excited states are used to describe a π-stacked dimer of adenine bases incorporated into (dA)20(dT)20. The results of these calculations reveal three different types of excited state minima which play a role in deactivation processes. Within this set of minima there are minima where the excited state is localized on one adenine (monomer-like) as well as minima where the excited state is delocalized on two adenines, forming different types of excimers and bonded excimers of varying but inter-related character. The proximity of their energies reveals that the minima can decay into one another along a flat potential energy surface dependent on the interbase separation. Additionally, analysis of the emissive energies and other physical properties, including theoretical anisotropy calculations, and comparison with fluorescence experiments, provides evidence that excimers play an important role in long-lived signals in adenine oligonucleotides while the subpicosecond decay is attributed to monomer-like minima. The necessity for a close approach of the nucleobases reveals that the deactivation mechanism is tied to macro-molecular motion.

Steady-State and Time-Resolved Studies into the Origin of the Intrinsic Fluorescence of G-Quadruplexes

Stretches of guanines in DNA and RNA can fold into guanine quadruplex structures (GQSs). These structures protect telomeres in DNA and regulate gene expression in RNA. GQSs have an intrinsic fluorescence that is sensitive to different parameters, including loop sequence and length. However, the dependence of GQS fluorescence on solution and sequence parameters and the origin of this fluorescence are poorly understood. Herein we examine effects of dangling nucleotides and cosolute conditions on GQS fluorescence using both steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. The quantum yield of dGGGTGGGTGGGTGGG, termed "dG3T", is found to be modest at ∼2 × 10(-3). Nevertheless, dG3T and its variants are significantly brighter than the common nucleic acid fluorophore 2-aminopurine (2AP) largely due to their sizable extinction coefficients. Dangling 5'-end nucleotides generally reduce emission and blue-shift the resultant spectrum, whereas dangling 3'-end nucleotides slightly enhance fluorescence, particularly on the red side of the emission band. Time-resolved fluorescence decays are broadly distributed in time and require three exponential components for accurate fits. Time-resolved emission spectra suggest the presence of two emitting populations centered at ∼330 and ∼390 nm, with the redder component being a well-defined long-lived (∼1 ns) entity. Insights into GQS fluorescence obtained here should be useful in designing brighter intrinsic RNA and DNA quadruplexes for use in label-free biotechnological applications.

Multiple Decay Mechanisms and 2D-UV Spectroscopic Fingerprints of Singlet Excited Solvated Adenine-Uracil Monophosphate

The decay channels of singlet excited adenine uracil monophosphate (ApU) in water are studied with CASPT2//CASSCF:MM potential energy calculations and simulation of the 2D-UV spectroscopic fingerprints with the aim of elucidating the role of the different electronic states of the stacked conformer in the excited state dynamics. The adenine (1) La state can decay without a barrier to a conical intersection with the ground state. In contrast, the adenine (1) Lb and uracil S(U) states have minima that are separated from the intersections by sizeable barriers. Depending on the backbone conformation, the CT state can undergo inter-base hydrogen transfer and decay to the ground state through a conical intersection, or it can yield a long-lived minimum stabilized by a hydrogen bond between the two ribose rings. This suggests that the (1) Lb , S(U) and CT states of the stacked conformer may all contribute to the experimental lifetimes of 18 and 240 ps. We have also simulated the time evolution of the 2D-UV spectra and provide the specific fingerprint of each species in a recommended probe window between 25 000 and 38 000 cm(-1) in which decongested, clearly distinguishable spectra can be obtained. This is expected to allow the mechanistic scenarios to be discerned in the near future with the help of the corresponding experiments. Our results reveal the complexity of the photophysics of the relatively small ApU system, and the potential of 2D-UV spectroscopy to disentangle the photophysics of multichromophoric systems.

Effect of C5-Methylation of Cytosine on the UV-Induced Reactivity of Duplex DNA: Conformational and Electronic Factors

C5-methylation of cytosines is strongly correlated with UV-induced mutations detected in skin cancers. Mutational hot-spots appearing at TCG sites are due to the formation of pyrimidine cyclobutane dimers (CPDs). The present study, performed for the model DNA duplex (TCGTA)3·(TACGA)3 and the constitutive single strands, examines the factors underlying the effect of C5-methylation on pyrimidine dimerization at TCG sites. This effect is quantified for the first time by quantum yields ϕ. They were determined following irradiation at 255, 267, and 282 nm and subsequent photoproduct analysis using HPLC coupled to mass spectrometry. C5-methylation leads to an increase of the CPD quantum yield up to 80% with concomitant decrease of that of pyrimidine(6-4) pyrimidone adducts (64PPs) by at least a factor of 3. The obtained ϕ values cannot be explained only by the change of the cytosine absorption spectrum upon C5-methylation. The conformational and electronic factors that may affect the dimerization reaction are discussed in light of results obtained by fluorescence spectroscopy, molecular dynamics simulations, and quantum mechanical calculations. Thus, it appears that the presence of an extra methyl on cytosine affects the sugar puckering, thereby enhancing conformations of the TC step that are prone to CPD formation but less favorable to 64PPs. In addition, C5-methylation diminishes the amplitude of conformational motions in duplexes; in the resulting stiffer structure, ππ* excitations may be transferred from initially populated exciton states to reactive pyrimidines giving rise to CPDs.

A computational study of the interaction between dopamine and DNA/RNA nucleosides

The interaction between protonated dopamine and neutral RNA and DNA nucleosides was studied by means of density functional theory calculations in vacuum and in implicit water. On the most stable complexes formed with each of the nucleosides, the vertical absorption excitation energies were evaluated and compared with the values of separated dopamine and corresponding nucleoside. The most stable complex was formed with guanosine and the spectral changes in this complex resulted in a significant reduction of the oscillator strength of the first dopamine's transition. In the first guanosine's transition, a redshift of 0.2 eV was found combined with a reduction of the oscillator strength.

Computational modeling of photoexcitation in DNA single and double strands

The photoexcitation of DNA strands triggers extremely complex photoinduced processes, which cannot be understood solely on the basis of the behavior of the nucleobase building blocks. Decisive factors in DNA oligomers and polymers include collective electronic effects, excitonic coupling, hydrogen-bonding interactions, local steric hindrance, charge transfer, and environmental and solvent effects. This chapter surveys recent theoretical and computational efforts to model real-world excited-state DNA strands using a variety of established and emerging theoretical methods. One central issue is the role of localized vs delocalized excitations and the extent to which they determine the nature and the temporal evolution of the initial photoexcitation in DNA strands.

Electronic excitations in Guanine quadruplexes

Guanine rich DNA strands, such as those encountered at the extremities of human chromosomes, have the ability to form four-stranded structures (G-quadruplexes) whose building blocks are guanine tetrads. G-quadruplex structures are intensively studied in respect of their biological role, as targets for anticancer therapy and, more recently, of their potential applications in the field of molecular electronics. Here we focus on their electronic excited states which are compared to those of non-interacting mono-nucleotides and those of single and double stranded structures. Particular emphasis is given to excited state relaxation processes studied by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy from femtosecond to nanosecond time scales. They include ultrafast energy transfer and trapping of ππ* excitations by charge transfer states. The effect of various structural parameters, such as the nature of the metal cations located in the central cavity of G-quadruplexes, the number of tetrads or the conformation of the constitutive single strands, are examined.

Influence of base stacking geometry on the nature of excited states in G-quadruplexes: a time-dependent DFT study

G-quadruplexes are four-stranded structures of nucleic acids that are formed from the association of guanine nucleobases into cyclical arrangements known as tetrads. G-quadruplexes are involved in a host of biological processes and are of interest in nanomaterial applications. However, not much is known about their electronic properties. In this paper, we analyze electronic excited states of G-quadruplexes using a combination of time-dependent DFT calculations and molecular dynamics simulations. We systematically consider experimentally observed arrangements of stacked guanine tetrads. The effects of structural features on exciton delocalization and photoinduced charge separation are explored using a quantitative analysis of the transition electron density. It is shown that collective coherent excitations shared between two guanine nucleobases dominate in the absorption spectrum of stacked G-tetrads. These excitations may also include a significant contribution of charge transfer states. Large variation in exciton localization is also observed between different structures with a general propensity toward localization between two bases. We reveal large differences in how charge separation occurs within different nucleobase arrangements, with some geometries favoring separation within a single tetrad and others favoring separation between tetrads. We also investigate the effects of the coordinating K(+) ion located in the central cavity of G-quadruplexes on the relative excited state properties of such systems. Our results demonstrate how the nature of excited states in G-quadruplexes depends on the nucleobase stacking geometry resulting from the mutual arrangement of guanine tetrads.

Early events of DNA photodamage

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a leading external hazard to the integrity of DNA. Exposure to UV radiation triggers a cascade of chemical reactions, and many molecular products (photolesions) have been isolated that are potentially dangerous for the cellular system. The early steps that take place after UV absorption by DNA have been studied by ultrafast spectroscopy. The review focuses on the evolution of excited electronic states, the formation of photolesions, and processes suppressing their formation. Emphasis is placed on lesions involving two thymine bases, such as the cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer, the (6-4) lesion, and its Dewar valence isomer.

Photodynamic behavior of electronic coupling in a N-methylformamide dimer

The role of the bridging water molecules has been studied during the excited state photodynamics of a N-methylformamide dimer in complex with water molecules employing the complete active space self-consistent field (CASSCF) and CAS perturbation theory (CASPT2) methods.

Slow deactivation channels in UV-photoexcited adenine DNA

The molecular mechanism for removing the excess energy in DNA bases is responsible for the high photostability of DNA and is thus the subject of intense theoretical/computational investigation. To understand why the excited state decay of the stacked bases is significantly longer than that of the monomers, we carried out electronic structure calculations on an adenine monomer and an aqueous (dA)5 oligonucleotide employing the CASPT2//CASSCF and CASPT2//CASSCF/AMBER levels of theory. The newly-found bright excited state pair Sstack1((1)ππ*) and Sstack2((1)ππ*) of d(A)5, originated from base stacking, is of intra-base charge transfer nature and occurs in different stacked bases with charge transfer along opposite directions. Two slow deactivation channels of d(A)5 were proposed as a result of the sizable barriers along the relaxation paths starting from the FC point of the Sstack1((1)ππ*) state. The SN1P((1)nπ*) state of d(A)5 serves as an intermediate state in one relaxation channel, to which a nonadiabatic decay from the Sstack1((1)ππ*) state occurs in an energy degeneracy region. A relatively high barrier in this state is found and attributed to the steric hindrance of the DNA environment due to the large NH2 group twisting, which gives a weak and red-shifted fluorescence. Another direct relaxation channel, induced by the C2-H2 bond twisting motion, is found to go through a conical intersection between the Sstack1((1)ππ*) and the ground state. The barrier found here enables fluorescence from the Sstack1((1)ππ*) state and may explain the bright state emission observed in the fluorescence upconversion measurements. The inter-molecular SCT((1)ππ*) state may be involved in the slow relaxation process of the photoexcited adenine oligomers through efficient internal conversion to the intra-base Sstack1((1)ππ*) state.

Role of excitonic coupling and charge-transfer states in the absorption and CD spectra of adenine-based oligonucleotides investigated through QM/MM simulations

In this work, we study the photophysical properties of an adenine-based oligonucleotide using an ensemble of about 200 configurations obtained from molecular dynamics simulations. Specifically, a QM/MM approach is used to obtain the excited-state energies and properties of (dA)20(dT)20 with a dimer of π-stacked adenine bases included in the quantum region. The absorption and circular dichroism spectra are computed and analyzed using the algebraic diagrammatic construction through second order level of theory method (ADC(2)) combined with classical mechanics. We find that the experimentally observed red-shifted shoulder in the absorption spectrum is due to excitonic interactions, while charge-transfer states are present within the absorption band at the higher-energy end of the spectrum. More importantly, low-energy states with charge-transfer mixing exist, which could lead to excimers and bonded excimers. These observations suggest that mixing between charge-transfer and excitonic states plays an important role in the photophysics of oligonucleotides. They also highlight the importance of taking into account the conformational flexibility of the oligonucleotide when investigating photophysical properties.

Quantitative study of As (V) and As (III) interaction with mangrove DNA by molecular fluorescence spectroscopy

This study describes the in vitro study of (1:1) one step nucleophilic displacement ([Formula: see text]) of phosphate by heavier anion arsenate and arsenite in the DNA of arsenic ridden Sundarban mangroves. Mangrove DNA was found to give rise to a broad fluorescence and its integrated fluorescence intensity was enhanced on addition of As (V) and As (III), respectively. Analyses of the fluorescence parameter showed adequacy of 1:1 model to describe substitution of phosphate of mangrove DNA chain exiplex by arsenate and arsenite with equilibrium constant (log Kc) ranging between 4.19 and 4.32 for As (V), and between 3.77 and 3.89 for As (III) at pH 7 and 25°C. In the cases, the melting temperature (Tm) and reassociation rate constant of mangrove DNA was increased on treatment with As (V) and As (III). It is suggested that heavier ion arsenate and arsenite may substitute phosphate in natural DNA.

Base stacking in adenosine dimers revealed by femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy

Excitons formed in DNA by UV absorption decay via poorly understood pathways that can culminate in mutagenic photoproducts. In order to gain insight into how base stacking influences UV excited states in DNA, five dinucleosides composed of adenosine or 2'-deoxyadenosine units joined by flexible linkers were studied by femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy. In aqueous solution, transient absorption signals recorded at pump and probe wavelengths of 267 and 250 nm, respectively, show that UV absorption produces excimer states in all dimers that decay orders of magnitude more slowly than excitations in a single adenine nucleotide. Adding methanol as a cosolvent disrupts π-π stacking of the adenine moieties and causes the excimer states in all five dinucleosides to vanish for a methanol concentration of 80% by volume. These observations confirm that base stacking is an essential requirement for the slow decay channel seen in these and other DNA model compounds. This channel appears to be insensitive to the precise stacking conformation at the instant of photon absorption as long as the bases are cofacially stacked. Notably, circular dichroism (CD) spectra of several of the dinucleosides are weak and monomer-like and lack the exciton coupling that has been emphasized in the past as an indicator of base-stacked structure. For these dimers, the coupled transition dipole moments of the two adenines are proposed to adopt left- and right-handed arrangements upon stacking with roughly equal probability. Although the mechanism behind slow nonradiative decay in DNA is still uncertain, these results show that the signature of these states in transient absorption experiments can be a more reliable diagnostic of base stacking than the occurrence of exciton-coupled CD signals. These observations also draw attention to the important role the backbone plays in producing structures with axial (helical) chirality.

Electronic excited states of guanine-cytosine hairpins and duplexes studied by fluorescence spectroscopy

Guanine-cytosine hairpins, containing a hexaethylene glycol bridge, are studied by steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy and time-correlated single photon counting; their properties are compared to those of duplexes with the same sequence. It is shown that, both in hairpins and in duplexes, base pairing induces quenching of the ππ* fluorescence, the quantum yield decreasing by at least two orders of magnitude. When the size of the systems increases from two to ten base pairs, a fluorescent component decaying on the nanosecond time-scale appears at energy higher than that stemming from the bright states of non-interacting mono-nucleotides (ca. 330 nm). For ten base pairs, this new fluorescence forms a well-defined band peaking at 305 nm. Its intensity is about 20% higher for the hairpin compared to the duplex. Its position (red-shifted by 1600 cm(-1)) and width (broader by 1800 cm(-1) FWHM) differ from those observed for large duplexes containing 1000 base pairs, suggesting the involvement of electronic coupling. Fluorescence anisotropy reveals that the excited states responsible for high energy emission are not populated directly upon photon absorption but are reached during a relaxation process. They are assigned to charge transfer states. According to the emerging picture, the amplitude of conformational motions determines whether instantaneous deactivation to the ground state or emission from charge transfer states will take place, while ππ* fluorescence is associated to imperfect base-pairing.

Electronic coupling between photo-excited stacked bases in DNA and RNA strands with emphasis on the bright states initially populated

In biology the interplay between multiple light-absorbers gives rise to complex quantum effects such as superposition states that are of extreme importance for life, both for harvesting solar energy and likely protecting nucleic acids from radiation damage. Still the characteristics of these states and their quantum dynamics are a much debated issue. While the electronic properties of single bases are fairly well understood, the situation for strands is complicated by the fact that stacked bases electronically couple when photoexcited. These newly arising states are denoted as exciton states and are simply linear combinations of localised wavefunctions that involve N - 1 ground-state bases and one base in its excited state (cf. the Frenkel exciton model). There is disagreement over the number of bases, N, that coherently couple, i.e., the spatial extent of the exciton, and how electronic deexcitation back to the ground state occurs. The importance of dark charge-transfer states has been inferred both from time-resolved fluorescence and transient absorption experiments. These states were suggested to be responsible for long deexcitation times but it is unclear whether 'long' is tens of picoseconds or nanoseconds. In this review paper, we focus on the bright states initially populated and discuss their nature based on information obtained from systematic absorption and circular dichroism experiments on single strands of different lengths. Our results from the last five years are compared with those from other groups, and are discussed in the context of successive deexcitation schemes. Pieces to the puzzle have come from different experiments and theory but a complete description has yet to emerge. As such the story about DNA/RNA photophysical decay mechanisms resembles the tale about the blind men and the elephant where all see the beast in different, correct but incomplete ways.

The effect of dimerization on the excited state behavior of methylated xanthine derivatives: a computational study

The behavior of monomers and dimers of methylated xanthine derivatives in their excited states is investigated by means of the ADC(2), CASSCF, and CASPT2 methods. The results of the calculations of stationary points in the ground and excited states, minima on the S0/S1 crossing seams and the relaxation pathways are used to provide the interpretation of experimental observations of the monomer xanthine derivatives. The effect of dimerization on the excited state properties is studied for various relative orientations of the monomers in the dimer complexes in comparison with the relevant monomer species. A significant stabilization in the excited state minima of dimers is observed. These can act as trapping sites. Various types of conical intersections, with both localized and delocalized characters of wavefunctions, have been found, mainly energetically above the lowest bright excited state in the FC region. In addition, structures with the bonds formed between the two monomers were also found on the crossing seams. The possibility of ultrafast relaxation via these conical intersections is discussed.

Electronic excitation and structural relaxation of the adenine dinucleotide in gas phase and solution

The excited states and potential surfaces of the adenine dinucleotide are analyzed in gas phase and in solution using a correlated ab initio methodology in a QM/MM framework. In agreement with previous studies, a rather flat S1 surface with a number of minima of different character is found. Specifically, our results suggest that exciplexes with remarkably short intermolecular separation down to ~2.0 Å are formed. A detailed analysis shows that due to strong orbital interactions their character differs significantly from any states present in the Franck-Condon region. The lowest S1 energy minimum is a ππ* exciplex with only a small amount of charge transfer. It possesses appreciable oscillator strength with a polarization almost perpendicular to the planes of the two adenine molecules.

Probing ultrafast dynamics in adenine with mid-UV four-wave mixing spectroscopies

Heterodyne-detected transient grating (TG) and two-dimensional photon echo (2DPE) spectroscopies are extended to the mid-UV spectral range in this investigation of photoinduced relaxation processes of adenine in aqueous solution. These experiments are the first to combine a new method for generating 25 fs laser pulses (at 263 nm) with the passive phase stability afforded by diffractive optics-based interferometry. We establish a set of conditions (e.g., laser power density, solute concentration) appropriate for the study of dynamics involving the neutral solute. Undesired solute photoionization is shown to take hold at higher peak powers of the laser pulses. Signatures of internal conversion and vibrational cooling dynamics are examined using TG measurements with signal-to-noise ratios as high as 350 at short delay times. In addition, 2DPE line shapes reveal correlations between excitation and emission frequencies in adenine, which reflect electronic and nuclear relaxation processes associated with particular tautomers. Overall, this study demonstrates the feasibility of techniques that will hold many advantages for the study of biomolecules whose lowest-energy electronic resonances are found in the mid-UV (e.g., DNA bases, amino acids).