[FeFe]-Hydrogenases: maturation and reactivity of enzymatic systems and overview of biomimetic models

[FeFe]-hydrogenases recieved increasing interest in the last decades. This review summarises important findings regarding their enzymatic reactivity as well as inorganic models applied as electro- and photochemical catalysts.

Biochemical and artificial pathways for the reduction of carbon dioxide, nitrite and the competing proton reduction: effect of 2nd sphere interactions in catalysis

Reduction of oxides and oxoanions of carbon and nitrogen are of great contemporary importance as they are crucial for a sustainable environment.

Proton-coupled electron transfer in the reduction of diiron hexacarbonyl complexes and its enhancement on the electrocatalytic reduction of protons by a pendant basic group

The pendant basic groups in a diiron complex acted as proton relay to ease the kinetic resistance in proton reduction and enhance proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET).

Interplay between CN- Ligands and the Secondary Coordination Sphere of the H-Cluster in [FeFe]-Hydrogenases

The catalytic cofactor of [FeFe]-hydrogenses (H-cluster) is composed of a generic cubane [4Fe-4S]-cluster (4Fe_H) linked to a binuclear iron-sulfur cluster (2Fe_H) that has an open coordination site at which the reversible conversion of protons to molecular hydrogen occurs. The (2Fe_H) subsite features a diatomic coordination sphere composed of three CO and two CN^- ligands affecting its redox properties and providing excellent probes for FTIR spectroscopy. The CO stretch vibrations are very sensitive to the redox changes within the H-cluster occurring during the catalytic cycle, whereas the CN^- signals seem to be relatively inert to these effects. This could be due to the more structural role of the CN^- ligands tightly anchoring the (2Fe_H) unit to the protein environment through hydrogen bonding. In this work we explore the effects of structural changes within the secondary ligand sphere affecting the CN^- ligands on FTIR spectroscopy and catalysis. By comparing the FTIR spectra of wild-type enzyme and two mutagenesis variants, we are able to assign the IR signals of the individual CN^- ligands of the (2Fe_H) site for different redox states of the H-cluster. Moreover, protein film electrochemistry reveals that targeted manipulation of the secondary coordination sphere of the proximal CN^- ligand (i.e., closest to the (4Fe_H) site) can affect the catalytic bias. These findings highlight the importance of the protein environment for re-adjusting the catalytic features of the H-cluster in individual enzymes and provide valuable information for the design of artificial hydrogenase mimics.

Synthesis of Diiron(I) Dithiolato Carbonyl Complexes

Virtually all organosulfur compounds react with Fe(0) carbonyls to give the title complexes. These reactions are reviewed in light of major advances over the past few decades, spurred by interest in Fe2(μ-SR)2(CO)x centers at the active sites of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase enzymes. The most useful synthetic route to Fe2(μ-SR)2(CO)6 involves the reaction of thiols with Fe2(CO)9 and Fe3(CO)12. Such reactions can proceed via mono-, di-, and triiron intermediates. The reactivity of Fe(0) carbonyls toward thiols is highly chemoselective, and the resulting dithiolato complexes are fairly rugged. Thus, many complexes tolerate further synthetic elaboration directed at the organic substituents. A second major route involves alkylation of Fe2(μ-S2)(CO)6, Fe2(μ-SH)2(CO)6, and Li2Fe2(μ-S)2(CO)6. This approach is especially useful for azadithiolates Fe2[(μ-SCH2)2NR](CO)6. Elaborate complexes arise via addition of the FeSH group to electrophilic alkenes, alkynes, and carbonyls. Although the first example of Fe2(μ-SR)2(CO)6 was prepared from ferrous reagents, ferrous compounds are infrequently used, although the Fe(II)(SR)2 + Fe(0) condensation reaction is promising. Almost invariably low-yielding, the reaction of Fe3(CO)12, S8, and a variety of unsaturated substrates results in C-H activation, affording otherwise inaccessible derivatives. Thiones and related C═S-containing reagents are highly reactive toward Fe(0), often giving complexes derived from substituted methanedithiolates and C-H activation.

Highly functionalizable penta-coordinate iron hydrogen production catalysts with low overpotentials

Penta-coordinate iron complexes with ‘PNP’ diphosphine ligands, [Fe(S₂C₆H₄)((C₆H₅)₂PN(R)P(C₆H₅)₂)CO], all air-stable Fe^II compounds, show electrocatalytic H₂ production at low overpotentials (η = 0.09–0.21 V vs. Pt). These catalysts utilize an EC mechanism, where one-electron reduction triggers protonation by weak acids.

Crystal structure of N-(2-{[2,6-bis-(2,2,2-tri-fluoro-acetamido)-phen-yl]disulfan-yl}-3-(2,2,2-tri-fluoro-acetamido)-phen-yl)-2,2,2-tri-fluoro-acetamide

The title compound, C20H10F12N4O4S2, is an organic diaryl di-sulfide compound with tri-fluoro-acetamide substituents at the ortho-positions of each benzene ring. There are two mol-ecules (labeled A and B) in the asymmetric unit. The F atoms of three of the -CF3 groups exhibit rotational disorder over two positions each. The S-S bond distances are 2.0914 (7) and 2.0827 (6) Å for mol-ecules A and B, respectively. The dihedral angle between the S-S-C and S-C-C planes is 103.05 (15)° for mol-ecule A and 104.09 (15)° for mol-ecule B. The three-dimensional supra-molecular architecture of the crystal is sustained by numerous N-H⋯O, N-H⋯S and C-H⋯O inter-actions.

Toward a tunable synthetic [FeFe] hydrogenase mimic: single-chain nanoparticles functionalized with a single diiron cluster

We report two novel “clickable” [(μ-S₂C₂H₄NR)Fe₂(CO)₆] complexes and their incorporation into single-chain nanoparticles.

Favorable Protonation of the (μ-edt)[Fe(2)(PMe(3))(4)(CO)(2)(H-terminal)](+) Hydrogenase Model Complex Over Its Bridging μ-H Counterpart: A Spectroscopic and DFT Study

The mechanism of hydrogen production in [FeFe] hydrogenase remains elusive. However, a species featuring a terminal hydride bound to the distal Fe is thought to be the key intermediate leading to hydrogen production. In this study, density functional theory (DFT) calculations on the terminal (H-term) and bridging (μ-H) hydride isomers of (μ-edt)-[Fe(2)(PMe(3))(4)(CO)(2)H](+) are presented in order to understand the factors affecting their propensity for protonation. Relative to H-term, μ-H is 12.7 kcal/mol more stable, which contributes to its decreased reactivity towards an acid. Potential energy surface (PES) calculations for the reaction of the H-term isomer with 4-nitropyridinium, a proton source, further reveal a lower activation energy barrier (14.5 kcal/mol) for H-term than for μ-H (29 kcal/mol). Besides these energetic considerations, the H-term isomer displays a key molecular orbital (MO <139>) that has a relatively strong hydride (1s) contribution (23%), which is not present in the μ-H isomer. This indicates a potential orbital control of the reaction of the hydride complexes with acid. The lower activation energy barrier and this key MO together control the overall catalytic activity of (μ-edt)[Fe(2)(PMe(3))(4)(CO)(2)(H-term)](+). Lastly, Raman and IR spectroscopy were performed in order to probe the ν(Fe-H) stretching mode of the two isomers and their deuterated counterparts. A ν(Fe-H) stretching mode was observed for the μ-H complex at 1220 cm(-1). However, the corresponding mode is not observed for the less stable H-term isomer.

Vibrational analysis of the model complex (mu-edt)[Fe(CO)(3)](2) and comparison to iron-only hydrogenase: the activation scale of hydrogenase model systems

Research on simple [FeFe] hydrogenase model systems of type (mu-S(2)R)[Fe(CO)(3)](2) (R = C(2)H(4) (edt), C(3)H(6) (pdt)) which have been shown to function as robust electrocatalysts for proton reduction, provides a reference to understand the electronic and vibrational properties of the active site of [FeFe] hydrogenases and of more sophisticated model systems. In this study, the solution and solid state Raman spectra of (mu-edt)[Fe(CO)(3)](2) and of the corresponding (13)CO-labeled complex are presented and analyzed in detail, with focus on the nu(C=O) and nu(Fe-CO)/delta(Fe-C=O) vibrational regions. These regions are specifically important as vibrations involving CO ligands serve as probes for the "electron richness" of low-valent transition metal centers and the geometric structures of the complexes. The obtained vibrational spectra have been completely assigned in terms of the nu(C=O), nu(Fe-CO), and delta(Fe-C=O) modes, and the force constants of the important C=O and Fe-CO bonds have been determined using our Quantum Chemistry Centered Normal Coordinate Analysis (QCC-NCA). In the 400-650 cm(-1) region, fifteen mixed nu(Fe-CO)/delta(Fe-C=O) modes have been identified. The most prominent Raman peaks at 454, 456, and 483 cm(-1) correspond to a combination of nu(Fe-CO) stretching and delta(Fe-C=O) linear bending modes. The less intense peaks at 416 cm(-1) and 419 cm(-1) correspond to pure delta(Fe-C=O) linear bends. In the nu(C=O) region, the nu(C=O) normal modes at lower energy (1968 and 1964 cm(-1)) are almost pure equatorial (eq) nu(C=O)(eq) stretching vibrations, whereas the remaining four nu(C=O) normal modes show dominant (C=O)(eq) (2070 and 1961 cm(-1)) and (C=O)(ax) (2005 and 1979 cm(-1); ax = axial) contributions. Importantly, an inverse correlation between the f(C=O)(ax/eq) and f(Fe-CO)(ax/eq) force constants is obtained, in agreement with the idea that the Fe(I)-CO bond in these types of complexes is dominated by pi-backdonation. Compared to the reduced form of [FeFe] hydrogenase (H(red)), the nu(C=O) vibrational frequencies of (mu-edt)[Fe(CO)(3)](2) are higher in energy, indicating that the dinuclear iron core in (mu-edt)[Fe(CO)(3)](2) is less electron rich compared to H(red) in the actual enzyme. Finally, quantum yields for the photodecomposition of (mu-edt)[Fe(CO)(3)](2) have been determined.

Cyclopentadienyl ruthenium-nickel catalysts for biomimetic hydrogen evolution: electrocatalytic properties and mechanistic DFT studies

The new dinuclear nickel-ruthenium complexes [Ni(xbsms)RuCp(L)][PF(6)] (H(2)xbsms = 1,2-bis(4-mercapto-3,3-dimethyl-2-thiabutyl)benzene; Cp(-) = cyclopentadienyl; L = DMSO, CO, PPh(3), and PCy(3)) are reported and are bioinspired mimics of NiFe hydrogenases. These compounds were characterized by X-ray diffraction techniques and display novel structural motifs. Interestingly, [Ni(xbsms)RuCpCO][PF(6)] is stereochemically nonrigid in solution and an isomerization mechanism was derived with the help of density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Because of an increased electron density on the metal centers [Eur. J. Inorg. Chem. 2007, 18, 2613-2626] with respect to the previously described [Ni(xbsms)Ru(CO)(2)Cl(2)] and [Ni(xbsms)Ru(p-cymene)Cl](+) complexes, [Ni(xbsms)RuCp(dmso)][PF(6)] catalyzes hydrogen evolution from Et(3)NH(+) in DMF with an overpotential reduced by 180 mV and thus represents the most efficient NiFe hydrogenase functional mimic. DFT calculations were carried out with several methods to investigate the catalytic cycle and, coupled with electrochemical measurements, allowed a mechanism to be proposed. A terminal or bridging hydride derivative was identified as the active intermediate, with the structure of the bridging form similar to that of the Ni-C active state of NiFe hydrogenases.

Molecular recognition and self-assembly special feature: Self-assembled biomimetic [2Fe2S]-hydrogenase-based photocatalyst for molecular hydrogen evolution

The large-scale production of clean energy is one of the major challenges society is currently facing. Molecular hydrogen is envisaged as a key green fuel for the future, but it becomes a sustainable alternative for classical fuels only if it is also produced in a clean fashion. Here, we report a supramolecular biomimetic approach to form a catalyst that produces molecular hydrogen using light as the energy source. It is composed of an assembly of chromophores to a bis(thiolate)-bridged diiron ([2Fe2S]) based hydrogenase catalyst. The supramolecular building block approach introduced in this article enabled the easy formation of a series of complexes, which are all thoroughly characterized, revealing that the photoactivity of the catalyst assembly strongly depends on its nature. The active species, formed from different complexes, appears to be the [Fe(2)(micro-pdt)(CO)(4){PPh(2)(4-py)}(2)] (3) with 2 different types of porphyrins (5a and 5b) coordinated to it. The modular supramolecular approach was important in this study as with a limited number of building blocks several different complexes were generated.