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Lima AH, Silva JR, Alves C, Lameira J. QM/MM Study of the Fosfomycin Resistance Mechanism Involving FosB Enzyme. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:12507-12512. [PMID: 34056400 PMCID: PMC8154160 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c00096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant organisms contain antibiotic-modifying enzymes that facilitate resistance to a variety of antimicrobial compounds. Particularly, the fosfomycin (FOF) drug can be structurally modified by several FOF-modifying enzymes before it reaches the biological target. Among them, FosB is an enzyme that utilizes l-cysteine or bacillithiol in the presence of a divalent metal to open the epoxide ring of FOF and, consequently, inactivate the drug. Here, we have used hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to explore the mechanism of the reaction involving FosB and FOF. The calculated free-energy profiles show that the cost to open the epoxide ring of FOF at the C2 atom is ∼3.0 kcal/mol higher than that at the C1 atom. Besides, our QM/MM MD results revealed the critical role of conformation change of Cys9 and Asn50 to release the drug from the active site. Overall, the present study provides insights into the mechanism of FOF-resistant proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson H. Lima
- Laboratório de Planejamento
e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Instituto de Ciências
Exatas e Naturais, Universidade Federal
do Pará, Rua Augusto Corrêa, 01, 66075-110, Belém, Pará, Brasil
| | - José Rogério
A. Silva
- Laboratório de Planejamento
e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Instituto de Ciências
Exatas e Naturais, Universidade Federal
do Pará, Rua Augusto Corrêa, 01, 66075-110, Belém, Pará, Brasil
| | - Cláudio
Nahum Alves
- Laboratório de Planejamento
e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Instituto de Ciências
Exatas e Naturais, Universidade Federal
do Pará, Rua Augusto Corrêa, 01, 66075-110, Belém, Pará, Brasil
| | - Jerônimo Lameira
- Laboratório de Planejamento
e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Instituto de Ciências
Exatas e Naturais, Universidade Federal
do Pará, Rua Augusto Corrêa, 01, 66075-110, Belém, Pará, Brasil
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2
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Shimizu Y, Noshita M, Mukai Y, Morimoto H, Ohshima T. Cleavage of unactivated amide bonds by ammonium salt-accelerated hydrazinolysis. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015; 50:12623-5. [PMID: 24888986 DOI: 10.1039/c4cc02014f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hydrazinolysis of unactivated amide bonds is significantly accelerated by the addition of ammonium salts. The reactions proceed at 50-70 °C to give amines with broad substrate scope that outperforms existing amide bond cleavage reactions. Application to peptide and amino sugar derivatives is also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhei Shimizu
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan.
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3
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Crack JC, Munnoch J, Dodd EL, Knowles F, Al Bassam MM, Kamali S, Holland AA, Cramer SP, Hamilton CJ, Johnson MK, Thomson AJ, Hutchings MI, Le Brun NE. NsrR from Streptomyces coelicolor is a nitric oxide-sensing [4Fe-4S] cluster protein with a specialized regulatory function. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:12689-704. [PMID: 25771538 PMCID: PMC4432287 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.643072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The Rrf2 family transcription factor NsrR controls expression of genes in a wide range of bacteria in response to nitric oxide (NO). The precise form of the NO-sensing module of NsrR is the subject of controversy because NsrR proteins containing either [2Fe-2S] or [4Fe-4S] clusters have been observed previously. Optical, Mössbauer, resonance Raman spectroscopies and native mass spectrometry demonstrate that Streptomyces coelicolor NsrR (ScNsrR), previously reported to contain a [2Fe-2S] cluster, can be isolated containing a [4Fe-4S] cluster. ChIP-seq experiments indicated that the ScNsrR regulon is small, consisting of only hmpA1, hmpA2, and nsrR itself. The hmpA genes encode NO-detoxifying flavohemoglobins, indicating that ScNsrR has a specialized regulatory function focused on NO detoxification and is not a global regulator like some NsrR orthologues. EMSAs and DNase I footprinting showed that the [4Fe-4S] form of ScNsrR binds specifically and tightly to an 11-bp inverted repeat sequence in the promoter regions of the identified target genes and that DNA binding is abolished following reaction with NO. Resonance Raman data were consistent with cluster coordination by three Cys residues and one oxygen-containing residue, and analysis of ScNsrR variants suggested that highly conserved Glu-85 may be the fourth ligand. Finally, we demonstrate that some low molecular weight thiols, but importantly not physiologically relevant thiols, such as cysteine and an analogue of mycothiol, bind weakly to the [4Fe-4S] cluster, and exposure of this bound form to O2 results in cluster conversion to the [2Fe-2S] form, which does not bind to DNA. These data help to account for the observation of [2Fe-2S] forms of NsrR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason C Crack
- From the Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry
| | | | - Erin L Dodd
- From the Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry
| | | | | | - Saeed Kamali
- the Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California 95616, and
| | - Ashley A Holland
- the Department of Chemistry and Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Stephen P Cramer
- the Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California 95616, and
| | - Chris J Hamilton
- the School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Michael K Johnson
- the Department of Chemistry and Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Andrew J Thomson
- From the Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry
| | | | - Nick E Le Brun
- From the Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry,
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4
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Hernick M. Mycothiol: a target for potentiation of rifampin and other antibiotics againstMycobacterium tuberculosis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 11:49-67. [DOI: 10.1586/eri.12.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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5
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McConnell MS, Mensah EA, Nguyen HM. Stereoselective α-glycosylation of C(6)-hydroxyl myo-inositols via nickel catalysis-application to the synthesis of GPI anchor pseudo-oligosaccharides. Carbohydr Res 2013; 381:146-52. [PMID: 24121123 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2013.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Revised: 09/06/2013] [Accepted: 09/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Glycosylphosphatidyl inositol (GPI) anchors play a key role in many eukaryotic biological pathways. Stereoselective synthesis of GPI anchor analogues have proven to be critical for probing the biosynthesis, structure, and biological properties of these compounds. Challenges that have emerged from these efforts include the preparation of the selectively protected myo-inositol building blocks and the stereoselective construction of glucosamine α-linked myo-inositol containing pseudodisaccharide units. Herein, we describe the effectiveness of the cationic nickel(II) catalyst, Ni(4-F-PhCN)4(OTf)2, at promoting selective formation of 1,2-cis-2-amino glycosidic bonds between the C(2)-N-substituted benzylideneamino trihaloacetimidate donors and C(6)-hydroxyl myo-inositol acceptors. This catalytic coupling process allows rapid access to pseudosaccharides of GPI anchors in good yields and with excellent levels of α-selectivity (α:β=10:1-20:1). In stark contrast, activation of trichloroacetimidate donors containing the C(2)-N-substituted benzylidene group with TMSOTf and BF3(.)OEt2 provided the desired pseudodisaccharides as a 1:1 mixture of α- and β-isomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S McConnell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
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6
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Nokwequ MG, Nkambule CM, Gammon DW. Armed–disarmed effect on the stability of cysteine thioglucosides. Carbohydr Res 2012; 359:18-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2012.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Revised: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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7
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Chung CC, Zulueta MML, Padiyar LT, Hung SC. Desymmetrization of 2,4,5,6-Tetra-O-benzyl-d-myo-inositol for the Synthesis of Mycothiol. Org Lett 2011; 13:5496-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ol202218n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chuan-Chung Chung
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2 Academia Road, Taipei 115, Taiwan, and Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiao Tung University, 1001 Ta-Hsueh Road, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
| | - Medel Manuel L. Zulueta
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2 Academia Road, Taipei 115, Taiwan, and Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiao Tung University, 1001 Ta-Hsueh Road, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
| | - Laxmansingh T. Padiyar
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2 Academia Road, Taipei 115, Taiwan, and Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiao Tung University, 1001 Ta-Hsueh Road, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
| | - Shang-Cheng Hung
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2 Academia Road, Taipei 115, Taiwan, and Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiao Tung University, 1001 Ta-Hsueh Road, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
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8
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Sharma SV, Jothivasan VK, Newton GL, Upton H, Wakabayashi JI, Kane MG, Roberts AA, Rawat M, La Clair JJ, Hamilton CJ. Chemical and Chemoenzymatic Syntheses of Bacillithiol: A Unique Low-Molecular-Weight Thiol amongst Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201100196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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9
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Sharma SV, Jothivasan VK, Newton GL, Upton H, Wakabayashi JI, Kane MG, Roberts AA, Rawat M, La Clair JJ, Hamilton CJ. Chemical and Chemoenzymatic syntheses of bacillithiol: a unique low-molecular-weight thiol amongst low G + C Gram-positive bacteria. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011; 50:7101-4. [PMID: 21751306 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201100196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Revised: 03/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sunil V Sharma
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
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10
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Ajayi K, Thakur VV, Lapo RC, Knapp S. Intramolecular alpha-glucosaminidation: synthesis of mycothiol. Org Lett 2010; 12:2630-3. [PMID: 20443569 DOI: 10.1021/ol1008334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A protected cyclitol aglycon was tethered to an (N-arylsulfonyl)glucosamine donor by a methylene linker; the exclusively alpha-selective intramolecular glycosylation reaction was then initiated by electrophilic activation of the thioglycoside donor portion. Further transformations of the glycosylation product to give the M. tuberculosis detoxifier mycothiol and its oxidized congener, the disulfide mycothione, are detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kehinde Ajayi
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, 610 Taylor Road, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, USA
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11
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Gammon DW, Steenkamp DJ, Mavumengwana V, Marakalala MJ, Mudzunga TT, Hunter R, Munyololo M. Conjugates of plumbagin and phenyl-2-amino-1-thioglucoside inhibit MshB, a deacetylase involved in the biosynthesis of mycothiol. Bioorg Med Chem 2010; 18:2501-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2010.02.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2009] [Revised: 02/21/2010] [Accepted: 02/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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12
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Crack JC, den Hengst CD, Jakimowicz P, Subramanian S, Johnson MK, Buttner MJ, Thomson AJ, Le Brun NE. Characterization of [4Fe-4S]-containing and cluster-free forms of Streptomyces WhiD. Biochemistry 2009; 48:12252-64. [PMID: 19954209 PMCID: PMC2815329 DOI: 10.1021/bi901498v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
WhiD, a member of the WhiB-like (Wbl) family of iron-sulfur proteins found exclusively within the actinomycetes, is required for the late stages of sporulation in Streptomyces coelicolor. Like all other Wbl proteins, WhiD has not so far been purified in a soluble form that contains a significant amount of cluster, and characterization has relied on cluster-reconstituted protein. Thus, a major goal in Wbl research is to obtain and characterize native protein containing iron-sulfur clusters. Here we report the analysis of S. coelicolor WhiD purified anaerobically from Escherichia coli as a soluble protein containing a single [4Fe-4S](2+) cluster ligated by four cysteines. Upon exposure to oxygen, spectral features associated with the [4Fe-4S] cluster were lost in a slow reaction that unusually yielded apo-WhiD directly without significant concentrations of cluster intermediates. This process was found to be highly pH dependent with an optimal stability observed between pH 7.0 and pH 8.0. Low molecular weight thiols, including a mycothiol analogue and thioredoxin, exerted a small but significant protective effect against WhiD cluster loss, an activity that could be of physiological importance. [4Fe-4S](2+) WhiD was found to react much more rapidly with superoxide than with either oxygen or hydrogen peroxide, which may also be of physiological significance. Loss of the [4Fe-4S] cluster to form apoprotein destabilized the protein fold significantly but did not lead to complete unfolding. Finally, apo-WhiD exhibited negligible activity in an insulin-based disulfide reductase assay, demonstrating that it does not function as a general protein disulfide reductase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason C. Crack
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Chris D. den Hengst
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Piotr Jakimowicz
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Sowmya Subramanian
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602-2556
| | - Michael K. Johnson
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602-2556
| | - Mark J. Buttner
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Andrew J. Thomson
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Nick E. Le Brun
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
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13
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Mativandlela SPN, Muthivhi T, Kikuchi H, Oshima Y, Hamilton C, Hussein AA, van der Walt ML, Houghton PJ, Lall N. Antimycobacterial flavonoids from the leaf extract of Galenia africana. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2009; 72:2169-2171. [PMID: 20035557 DOI: 10.1021/np800778b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The bioassay-guided fractionation of the EtOH extract of the leaves of Galenia africana led to the isolation of three known flavonoids, (2S)-5,7,2'-trihydroxyflavanone (1), (E)-3,2',4'-trihydroxychalcone (2), and (E)-2',4'-dihydroxychalcone (3), and the new (E)-3,2',4'-trihydroxy-3'-methoxychalcone (4). Compounds 1 and 3 exhibited moderate antituberculosis activity. During synergistic studies, a combination of compound 4 and an existing antituberculosis drug, isoniazid, reduced their original MICs 4-fold, resulting in a fractional inhibitory concentration of 0.50. The most pronounced effect was demonstrated by compound 1 and isoniazid reducing their MICs 16-fold and resulting in an FIC of 0.12. Both EtOH extract and isolated compounds failed to exhibit any NADPH oxidase activity at 800.0 muM concentrations, indicating that mycothiol disulfide reductase is not the target for their antituberculosis activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sannah P N Mativandlela
- South African Medical Research Council, TB Epidemiology and Intervention Research Unit, South African National Blood Service, Pretoria, South Africa
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14
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Hamilton CJ, Finlay RMJ, Stewart MJG, Bonner A. Mycothiol disulfide reductase: a continuous assay for slow time-dependent inhibitors. Anal Biochem 2009; 388:91-6. [PMID: 19233116 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2009.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2008] [Revised: 02/10/2009] [Accepted: 02/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mycothiol (MSH) is the principal low-molecular-weight thiol, unique to mycobacteria and other actinomycetes, that performs a role analogous to glutathione found in other organisms. MSH plays a key role in oxidative stress management and is oxidized to the dimeric mycothiol disulfide (MSSM) in the process. NADPH-dependent mycothiol disulfide reductase (Mtr) helps to maintain an intracellular reducing environment by reducing MSSM back to MSH. Mtr inhibition studies are currently impaired by limited availability of MSSM. Substrate demands are particularly high in time-dependent inhibition assays. Here we report an assay that chemically recycles a mixed disulfide substrate analogue in situ, thereby greatly reducing the substrate quantities needed for such assays. This has enabled the development of a continuous assay where linear reaction rates can be maintained for 40 min or longer using minimal substrate concentrations (5 microM versus a substrate K(m) value of 268 microM). In this manner, substrate requirements are reduced by orders of magnitude. Characterization of a novel time-dependent inhibitor, 2-(5-bromo-2-methoxyphenyl)acrylonitrile, is also demonstrated using these procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris J Hamilton
- School of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk NR47TJ, UK.
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15
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Biosynthesis and functions of mycothiol, the unique protective thiol of Actinobacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2008; 72:471-94. [PMID: 18772286 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00008-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycothiol (MSH; AcCys-GlcN-Ins) is the major thiol found in Actinobacteria and has many of the functions of glutathione, which is the dominant thiol in other bacteria and eukaryotes but is absent in Actinobacteria. MSH functions as a protected reserve of cysteine and in the detoxification of alkylating agents, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and antibiotics. MSH also acts as a thiol buffer which is important in maintaining the highly reducing environment within the cell and protecting against disulfide stress. The pathway of MSH biosynthesis involves production of GlcNAc-Ins-P by MSH glycosyltransferase (MshA), dephosphorylation by the MSH phosphatase MshA2 (not yet identified), deacetylation by MshB to produce GlcN-Ins, linkage to Cys by the MSH ligase MshC, and acetylation by MSH synthase (MshD), yielding MSH. Studies of MSH mutants have shown that the MSH glycosyltransferase MshA and the MSH ligase MshC are required for MSH production, whereas mutants in the MSH deacetylase MshB and the acetyltransferase (MSH synthase) MshD produce some MSH and/or a closely related thiol. Current evidence indicates that MSH biosynthesis is controlled by transcriptional regulation mediated by sigma(B) and sigma(R) in Streptomyces coelicolor. Identified enzymes of MSH metabolism include mycothione reductase (disulfide reductase; Mtr), the S-nitrosomycothiol reductase MscR, the MSH S-conjugate amidase Mca, and an MSH-dependent maleylpyruvate isomerase. Mca cleaves MSH S-conjugates to generate mercapturic acids (AcCySR), excreted from the cell, and GlcN-Ins, used for resynthesis of MSH. The phenotypes of MSH-deficient mutants indicate the occurrence of one or more MSH-dependent S-transferases, peroxidases, and mycoredoxins, which are important targets for future studies. Current evidence suggests that several MSH biosynthetic and metabolic enzymes are potential targets for drugs against tuberculosis. The functions of MSH in antibiotic-producing streptomycetes and in bioremediation are areas for future study.
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16
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Jothivasan VK, Hamilton CJ. Mycothiol: synthesis, biosynthesis and biological functions of the major low molecular weight thiol in actinomycetes. Nat Prod Rep 2008; 25:1091-117. [PMID: 19030604 DOI: 10.1039/b616489g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Actinomycetes produce mycothiol as their major low molecular weight thiol, which parallels the functions of glutathione found in prokaryotes and most Gram-negative bacteria. This review covers progress that has so far been made in terms of its distribution, biosynthesis and metabolic functions, as well as chemical syntheses of mycothiol and alternative substrates and inhibitors of mycothiol biosynthesis and mycothiol-dependent enzymes. 152 references are cited.
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