NIR-quantum dots in biomedical imaging and their future

Fluorescence imaging has gathered interest over the recent years for its real-time response and high sensitivity. Developing probes for this modality has proven to be a challenge. Quantum dots (QDs) are colloidal nanoparticles that possess unique optical and electronic properties due to quantum confinement effects, whose excellent optical properties make them ideal for fluorescence imaging of biological systems. By selectively controlling the synthetic methodologies it is possible to obtain QDs that emit in the first (650-950 nm) and second (1000-1400 nm) near infra-red (NIR) windows, allowing for superior imaging properties. Despite the excellent optical properties and biocompatibility shown by some NIR QDs, there are still some challenges to overcome to enable there use in clinical applications. In this review, we discuss the latest advances in the application of NIR QDs in preclinical settings, together with the synthetic approaches and material developments that make NIR QDs promising for future biomedical applications.

Controlling the growth of a SiO2 coating on hydrophobic CsPbBr3 nanocrystals towards aqueous transfer and high luminescence

Silica coating can effectively solve the stability issue of lead halide perovskite nanomaterials. However, it is difficult to achieve aqueous SiO₂ coating on hydrophobic CsPbBr₃ nanocrystals (NCs). In this paper, the hydrolysis process of tetramethoxysilane was controlled to get a homogeneous SiO₂ coating or a NC/SiO₂ Janus structure. In step 1, the Cs₄PbBr₆ NCs were silanized using partially hydrolyzed tetramethoxysilane (PH-TMOS). During this process, the Si-OH groups which came from PH-TMOS were absorbed onto the surface of the Cs₄PbBr₆ NCs with the removal of hydrophobic oleic acid (OA) ligands. In step 2, phase transformation from Cs₄PbBr₆ to CsPbBr₃ occurred owing to the injection of water. Meanwhile, further hydrolysis of TMOS took place and generated cross-linked Si-O-Si. Because the silanization in step 1 created lots of growth sites, the condensation of SiO₂ was not limited to the interface between water and hexane. After growing for 12 h, the fully covered CsPbBr₃@SiO₂ capsules were prepared. The anion exchange reactions of the CsPbBr₃@SiO₂ capsules were studied. Only one even and symmetric PL peak was apparent during the anion exchange process, which was different from the bare CsPbBr₃ NCs. This result demonstrated that the SiO₂ shell can act as a buffer layer to block the direct contact of CsPbBr₃ with the excess PbBr₂ precursor in solution. Compared with the CsPbBr₃ NCs, CsPbBr₃@SiO₂ showed better stability in polar solvent and air. A bright green emission was also observed under UV light after 90 days. The successful preparation of CsPbBr₃@SiO₂ capsules with enhanced stability paves the way for the further development of lead halide perovskite nanomaterials.

Promoting Dendrimer Self-Assembly Enhances Covalent Layer-by-Layer Encapsulation of Pancreatic Islets

For type 1 diabetics, islet transplantation can induce beneficial outcomes, including insulin independence and improved glycemic control. The long-term function of the grafted tissue, however, is challenged by host inflammatory and immune responses. Cell encapsulation can decrease detrimental host responses to the foreign implant, but standard microencapsulation imparts large transplant volumes and impaired metabolite and nutrient diffusion. To mitigate these effects, we developed an efficient covalent Layer-by-Layer (cLbL) approach for live-cell nanoencapsulation, based on oppositely charged hyperbranched polymers functionalized with complementary Staudinger ligation groups. Reliance on cationic polymers for cLbL, however, is problematic due to their poor biocompatibility. Herein, we incorporated the additional feature of supramolecular self-assembly of the dendritic polymers to enhance layer uniformity and decrease net polymer charge. Functionalization of poly (amino amide) (PAMAM) with triethoxysilane decreased polymer charge without compromising the uniformity and stability of resulting nanoscale islet coatings. Encapsulated pancreatic rat islets were viable and functional. The implantation of cLbL islets into diabetic mice resulted in stable normoglycemia, at equivalent dosage and efficiency as uncoated islets, with no observable alterations in cellular engraftment or foreign body responses. By balancing multi-functionality and self-assembly, nano-scale and stable covalent layer-by-layer polymeric coatings could be efficiently generated onto cellular organoids, presenting a highly adaptable platform for broad use in cellular transplantation.

Encapsulation of Dual Emitting Giant Quantum Dots in Silica Nanoparticles for Optical Ratiometric Temperature Nanosensors

Accurate temperature measurements with a high spatial resolution for application in the biomedical fields demand novel nanosized thermometers with new advanced properties. Here, a water dispersible ratiometric temperature sensor is fabricated by encapsulating in silica nanoparticles, organic capped PbS@CdS@CdS “giant” quantum dots (GQDs), characterized by dual emission in the visible and near infrared spectral range, already assessed as efficient fluorescent nanothermometers. The chemical stability, easy surface functionalization, limited toxicity and transparency of the silica coating represent advantageous features for the realization of a nanoscale heterostructure suitable for temperature sensing. However, the strong dependence of the optical properties on the morphology of the final core–shell nanoparticle requires an accurate control of the encapsulation process. We carried out a systematic investigation of the synthetic conditions to achieve, by the microemulsion method, uniform and single core silica coated GQD (GQD@SiO2) nanoparticles and subsequently recorded temperature-dependent fluorescent spectra in the 281-313 K temperature range, suited for biological systems. The ratiometric response—the ratio between the two integrated PbS and CdS emission bands—is found to monotonically decrease with the temperature, showing a sensitivity comparable to bare GQDs, and thus confirming the effectiveness of the functionalization strategy and the potential of GQD@SiO2 in future biomedical applications.

Preparation and biomedical applications of bright robust silica nanocapsules with multiple incorporated InP/ZnS quantum dots

InP/ZnS quantum dots incorporated in silica capsules are robust and bright, and can image cells clearly.

Nanoparticles in practice for molecular-imaging applications: An overview

Nanoparticles (NPs) are playing a progressively more significant role in multimodal and multifunctional molecular imaging. The agents like Superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO), manganese oxide (MnO), gold NPs/nanorods and quantum dots (QDs) possess specific properties like paramagnetism, superparamagnetism, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and photoluminescence respectively. These specific properties make them able for single/multi-modal and single/multi-functional molecular imaging. NPs generally have nanomolar or micromolar sensitivity range and can be detected via imaging instrumentation. The distinctive characteristics of these NPs make them suitable for imaging, therapy and delivery of drugs. Multifunctional nanoparticles (MNPs) can be produced through either modification of shell or surface or by attaching an affinity ligand to the nanoparticles. They are utilized for targeted imaging by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), computed tomography (CT), photo acoustic imaging (PAI), two photon or fluorescent imaging and ultra sound etc. Toxicity factor of NPs is also a very important concern and toxic effect should be eliminated. First generation NPs have been designed, developed and tested in living subjects and few of them are already in clinical use. In near future, molecular imaging will get advanced with multimodality and multifunctionality to detect diseases like cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, cardiac diseases, inflammation, stroke, atherosclerosis and many others in their early stages. In the current review, we discussed single/multifunctional nanoparticles along with molecular imaging modalities.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

The present article intends to reveal recent avenues for nanomaterials in multimodal and multifunctional molecular imaging through a review of pertinent literatures. The topic emphasises on the distinctive characteristics of nanomaterial which makes them, suitable for biomedical imaging, therapy and delivery of drugs. This review is more informative of indicative technologies which will be helpful in a way to plan, understand and lead the nanotechnology related work.

Fabrication of photoactive heterostructures based on quantum dots decorated with Au nanoparticles

Silica based multifunctional heterostructures, exhibiting near infrared (NIR) absorption (650-1200 nm) and luminescence in the visible region, represent innovative nanosystems useful for diagnostic or theranostic applications. Herein, colloidal synthetic procedures are applied to design a photoactive multifunctional nanosystem. Luminescent silica (SiO2) coated quantum dots (QDs) have been used as versatile nanoplatforms to assemble on their surface gold (Au) seeds, further grown into Au spackled structures. The synthesized nanostructures combine the QD emission in the visible region, and, concomitantly, the distinctive NIR absorption of Au nanodomains. The possibility of having multiple QDs in a single heterostructure, the SiO2 shell thickness, and the extent of Au deposition onto SiO2 surface have been carefully controlled. The work shows that a single QD entrapped in 16 nm thick SiO2 shell, coated with Au speckles, represents the most suitable geometry to preserve the QD emission in the visible region and to generate NIR absorption from metal NPs. The resulting architectures present a biomedical potential as an effective optical multimodal probes and as promising therapeutic agents due to the Au NP mediated photothermal effect.

Highly selective luminescent nanostructures for mitochondrial imaging and targeting

Here a luminescent hybrid nanostructure based on functionalized quantum dots (QDs) is used as a fluorescent imaging agent able to target selectively mitochondria thanks to the molecular recognition of the translocator protein (TSPO). The selective targeting of such an 18 kDa protein mainly located in the outer mitochondrial membrane and overexpressed in several pathological states including neurodegenerative diseases and cancers may provide valuable information for the early diagnosis and therapy of human disorders. In particular, the rational design of amino functionalized luminescent silica coated QD nanoparticles (QD@SiO2 NPs) provides a versatile nanoplatform to anchor a potent and selective TSPO ligand, characterized by a 2-phenyl-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine acetamide structure along with a derivatizable carboxylic end group, useful to conjugate the TSPO ligand and achieve TSPO-QD@SiO2 NPs by means of a covalent amide bond. The colloidal stability and optical properties of the proposed nanomaterials are comprehensively investigated and their potential as mitochondrial imaging agents is fully assessed. Sub-cellular fractionation, together with confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscopy and co-localization analysis of targeted TSPO-QD@SiO2 NPs in C6 glioma cells overexpressing the TSPO, proves the great potential of these multifunctional nanosystems as in vitro selective mitochondrial imaging agents.

Cytotoxicity of CdSe-based quantum dots incorporated in glass nanoparticles evaluated using human keratinocyte HaCaT cells

CdSe quantum dots (QDs) are potential fluorescent reagents, but leakage of Cd and Se often induces cytotoxicity. Here we prepared CdSe-based QDs with glass to reduce their leakage and examined their cytotoxicity using keratinocyte cells. The cytotoxicity of the QDs with glass was obviously lower than that of the commercial QDs with polymer, suggesting their safety for biological applications.

Protective ligand shells for luminescent SiO₂-coated alloyed semiconductor nanocrystals

SiO2 encapsulation of alloyed CdSeZnS nanocrystals (NCs) shows differences in terms of optical properties and luminescence quantum yield, depending on the surface composition, size, and ligand content. In this work, emphasis has been placed on the fine control required to obtain luminescent SiO2 encapsulated NCs by studying the role of oleic acid (OA), stearic acid (SA), and dodecanethiol (DDT) ligands on the alloyed NCs. While the use of anchored DDT molecules is essential to preserve the optical properties, intercalated OA and SA play a critical role for SiO2 nucleation, as stated by (1)H NMR (including DOSY and NOESY) spectroscopy. These results emphasize the importance of surface chemistry in NCs; it is crucial to control their reactivity, and therefore their impact, in different applications, from optics to biomedicine.

Silica-based nanocomposites via reverse microemulsions: classifications, preparations, and applications

Silica-based nanocomposites with amorphous silica as the matrix or carrier along with a functional component have been extensively investigated. These nanocomposites combine the advantages of both silica and the functional components, demonstrating great potential for various applications. To synthesize such composites, one of the most frequently used methods is reverse microemulsion due to its convenient control over the size, shape, and structures. The structures of the composites have a decisive significance for their properties and applications. In this review, we tried to categorize the silica-based nanocomposites via reverse microemulsions based on their structures, discussed the syntheses individually for each structure, summarized their applications, and made some perspectives based on the current progress of this field.

Facile synthesis of ultrasmall monodisperse "raisin-bun"-type MoO3/SiO2 nanocomposites with enhanced catalytic properties

We report the preparation of ultrasmall monodisperse MoO3/SiO2 nanocomposites in reverse microemulsions formed by Brij-58/cyclohexane/water. The nanocomposites are of "raisin-bun"-type with 1.0 ± 0.2 nm MoO3 homogeneously dispersed in 23 ± 2 nm silica spheres. Characterization is carried out based on transmission electron microscopy (TEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), N2 sorption measurement, and NH3 temperature-programmed desorption (NH3-TPD). The as-prepared MoO3/SiO2 nanocomposites are microporous and exhibit enhanced catalytic activities for acetalization of benzaldehyde with ethylene glycol and can be repeatedly used 5 times without obvious deactivation. The catalytic performance improvement is attributed to the unique structure and ultrasmall size of the nanocomposites.

Highly luminescent and photostable quantum dot-silica monolith and its application to light-emitting diodes

A highly luminescent and photostable quantum dot-silica monolith (QD-SM) substance was prepared by preliminary surface exchange of the QDs and base-catalyzed sol-gel condensation of silica. The SM was heavily doped with 6-mercaptohexanol exchanged QDs up to 12 vol % (26 wt %) without particle aggregation. Propylamine catalyst was important in maintaining the original luminescence of the QDs in the SM during sol-gel condensation. The silica layer was a good barrier against oxygen and moisture, so that the QD-SM maintained its initial luminescence after high-power UV radiation (∼1 W) for 200 h and through the 150 °C LED encapsulant curing process. Green and red light-emitting QD-SMs were applied as color-converting layers on blue LEDs, and the external quantum efficiency reached up to 89% for the green QD-SM and 63% for the red one. A white LED made with a mixture of green and red QDs in the SM, in which the color coordinate was adjusted at (0.23, 0.21) in CIE1931 color space for a backlight application, showed an efficacy of 47 lm/W, the highest value yet reported.

Forming double layer-encapsulated quantum dots for bio-imaging and cell targeting

We report a simple and effective approach for the preparation of double layer-encapsulated quantum dots (DL-Qdots) composed of alkyl-capping ligands to interdigitate with hydrophobic, protective agents on the surface of AgInS(2)/ZnS quantum dots (Qdots), which allow phase transfer of hydrophobic Qdots from the organic phase into the aqueous phase. The alkyl-capping ligands consist of a hydrophobic, aliphatic chain and different functional terminal groups (e.g., carboxyl, amine, hydroxyl, and thiol groups) that can serve as reactive sites to chemically couple with other materials. The resulting DL-Qdots bearing various functional groups retain good fluorescence properties and show excellent solubility as well as stability over a range of pH in the aqueous phase. Cytotoxicity studies of DL-Qdots bearing carboxyl groups (DL-Qdots-COOH) were carried out against human cervical (HeLa) cancer cells to elicit no apparent toxicity even at high concentrations of 300 μg mL(-1) and 24 h of incubation. To demonstrate their potential biomedical application, DL-Qdots-COOH were further conjugated with folate for staining in HeLa, human liver carcinoma (HepG2), and human breast (MCF-7) cancer cells. Confocal imaging characterization revealed that folate-conjugated DL-Qdots could target most specifically and effectively HeLa cells via folate receptor-mediated targeted delivery compared to HepG2 and MCF-7 cells. The generality and simplicity of this newly developed strategy can possibly be extended to a large variety of hydrophobic Qdots and nanocrystals whose surface protective agents have a long aliphatic chain.

Near-infrared emitting CdTe0.5Se0.5/Cd0.5Zn0.5S quantum dots: synthesis and bright luminescence

We present how CdTe0.5Se0.5 cores can be coated with Cd0.5Zn0.5S shells at relatively low temperature (around 200°C) via facile synthesis using organic ammine ligands. The cores were firstly fabricated via a less toxic procedure using CdO, trioctylphosphine (TOP), Se, Te, and trioctylamine. The cores with small sizes (3.2-3.5 nm) revealed green and yellow photoluminescence (PL) and spherical morphologies. Hydrophobic core/shell CdTe0.5Se0.5/Cd0.5Zn0.5S quantum dots (QDs) with tunable PL between green and near-infrared (a maximum PL peak wavelength of 735 nm) were then created through a facile shell coating procedure using trioctylphosphine selenium with cadmium and zinc acetate. The QDs exhibited high PL efficiencies up to 50% because of the formation of a protective Cd0.5Zn0.5S shell on the CdTe0.5Se0.5 core, even though the PL efficiency of the cores is low (≤1%). Namely, the slow growth process of the shell plays an important role for getting high PL efficiencies. The properties of the QDs are largely determined by the properties of CdTe0.5Se0.5 cores and shells preparation conditions such as reaction temperature and time. The core/shell QDs exhibited a small size diameter. For example, the average diameter of the QDs with a PL peak wavelength of 735 nm is 6.1 nm. Small size and tunable bright PL makes the QDs utilizable as bioprobes because the size of QD-based bioprobes is considered as the major limitation for their broad applications in biological imaging.

Highly luminescent CdSe/Cd(x)Zn(1-x)S quantum dots coated with thickness-controlled SiO2 shell through silanization

A silanization technique of hydrophobic quantum dots (QDs) was applied to SiO(2)-coated CdSe/Cd(x)Zn(1-x)S QDs to precisely control the SiO(2) shell thickness and retain the original high photoluminescence (PL) properties of the QDs. Hydrophobic CdSe/Cd(x)Zn(1-x)S core-shell QDs with PL peak wavelengths of 600 and 652 nm were prepared by a facile organic route by using oleic acid (OA) as a capping agent. The QDs were silanized by using partially hydrolyzed tetraethyl orthosilicate by replacing surface OA. These silanized QDs were subsequently encapsulated in a SiO(2) shell by a reverse micelles synthesis. The silanization plays an important role for the QDs to be coated with a homogeneous SiO(2) shell and retain a high PL efficiency in water. Transmission electron microscopy observation shows that the shells are 1-9 nm with final particle sizes of 10-25 nm, depending on the initial QD size. In the case of short reaction time (6 h), the QDs were coated with a very thin SiO(2) layer because no visible SiO(2) shell was observed but transferred into the water phase. The silica coating does not change the PL peak wavelength of the QDs. The full width at half-maximum of PL was decreased 4 nm after coating for QDs emitting at both 600 and 652 nm. The PL efficiency of the SiO(2)-coated is up to 40%, mainly determined by the initial PL efficiency of the underlying CdSe/Cd(x)Zn(1-x)S QDs.

Multifunctional nanobeads based on quantum dots and magnetic nanoparticles: synthesis and cancer cell targeting and sorting

Trifunctional polymer nanobeads are prepared by destabilization of a mixture of magnetic nanoparticles, quantum dots, and an amphiphilic polymer, followed by functionalization of the bead surface with folic acid molecules. The distribution of the nanoparticles within the nanobeads can be tuned using either acetonitrile or water as destabilizing solvent. The luminescence of the resulting beads can be tuned by varying the ratio of quantum dots per magnetic nanoparticles. The application of an external magnetic field (such as a small static magnet of 0.3 T) to the magnetic-fluorescent nanobeads allows the quantitative accumulation of the beads within a few hours depending on the total size of the beads. Furthermore, specific targeting of cancer cells overexpressing folate receptors is achieved thanks to the folic acid decorating the surface of the as-synthesized nanobeads. Folate receptor mediated cellular uptake of the folic acid-functionalized nanobeads is proven via both confocal imaging and transmission electron microscopy characterization. Cell sorting experiments performed with trifunctional nanobeads show quantitative recovering of targeted cells even when they are present at low percentage (up to 1%).

Various Au nanoparticle organizations fabricated through SiO2 monomer induced self-assembly

A novel method has been developed to fabricate the assembly of Au colloidal nanoparticles (NPs) using SiO(2) monomers. The key strategy was the use of a controlled sol-gel procedure including hydrolysis, deposition, and condensation of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS). Namely, the assembly of Au NPs was created by the anisotropic deposition of SiO(2) monomers and subsequent permanent fixing by the growth of a SiO(2) shell. Various assemblies of Au NPs such as dimer, trimer, and pearl-chain morphology were fabricated by systematically changing the concentration and injection speed of TEOS. A longitudinal plasmon resonance band was observed as a result of the assembly of Au NPs and can be tuned from visible to near-infrared by altering the length of pearl-chain morphology. In addition, single Au NP was homogeneously coated with a SiO(2) shell by means of controlling the deposition rate of SiO(2) monomers during a Stöber synthesis without the use of a silane coupling agent or bulk polymer as the surface primer to render the Au surface vitreophilic. The Au NPs (mean size 11.4 nm in diameter) were thus encapsulated into SiO(2) beads with a wide range of sizes (from 20 to 50 nm in diameter). These pure SiO(2)-coated Au beads with tunable shell thickness should be crucial for biosensors, particularly as Raman-tag particles.