Enantioseparation/Recognition based on nano techniques/materials

Enantiomers show different behaviors in interaction with the chiral environment. Due to their identical chemical structure and their wide application in various industries, such as agriculture, medicine, pesticide, food, and so forth, their separation is of great importance. Today, the term "nano" is frequently encountered in all fields. Technology and measuring devices are moving towards miniaturization, and the usage of nanomaterials in all sectors is expanding substantially. Given that scientists have recently attempted to apply miniaturized techniques known as nano-liquid chromatography/capillary-liquid chromatography, which were originally accomplished in 1988, as well as the widespread usage of nanomaterials for chiral resolution (back in 1989), this comprehensive study was developed. Searching the terms "nano" and "enantiomer separation" on scientific websites such as Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science yields articles that either use miniaturized instruments or apply nanomaterials as chiral selectors with a variety of chemical and electrochemical detection techniques, which are discussed in this article.

Designing of robust and sensitive assay via encapsulation of highly emissive and stable blue copper nanocluster into zeolitic imidazole framework (ZIF-8) with quantitative detection of tetracycline

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with high stability and porosity have gained great attention in bioanalysis due to their potential in improving sensitivity and robustness of assays. Herein, to improve both the stability and the emission intensity of Cu nanoclusters (CuNCs), in situ entrapment strategy of CuNCs into zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) is described. Blue emissive and stable CuNCs was prepared, for the first time, using thiamine hydrochloride as capping agents, and showed strong and stable emission at 440 nm when excited at 375 nm with fluorescence quantum yields 12%. Encapsulation of CuNC into ZIF-8 showed dramatic enhancement of the fluorescence intensity up to 53% fluorescence quantum yield. Furthermore, the CuNCs@ZIF-8 possesses better stability (more than three months) due to protective and confinement effect of MOFs. Upon the addition of tetracycline to CuNCs@ZIF-8 solution, the blue emission intensity was significantly decreased. The fluorescence ratio (Fo/F) against the concentration of tetracycline exhibited a satisfactory linear relationship from 1.0 to 10.0 µM with a detection limit (LOD) of 0.30 µM. The current probe was applied for quantification of tetracycline in drug sample with satisfactory accuracy and precision.

Graphical abstract

Chirality Nanosensor with Direct Electric Readout by Coupling of Nanofloret Localized Plasmons with Electronic Transport

The detection of enantiopurity for small sample quantities is crucial, particularly in the pharmaceutical industry; however, existing methodologies rely on specific chiral recognition elements, or complex optical systems, limiting its utility. A nanoscale chirality sensor, for continuously monitoring molecular chirality using an electric circuit readout, is presented. This device design represents an alternative real-time scalable approach for chiral recognition of small quantity samples (less than 10³ adsorbed molecules). The active device component relies on a gold nanofloret hybrid structure, i.e., a high aspect ratio semiconductor-metal hybrid nanosystem in which a SiGe nanowire tip is selectively decorated with a gold metallic cap. The tip mechanically touches a counter electrode to generate a nanojunction, and upon exposure to molecules, a metal-molecule-metal junction is formed. Adsorption of chiral molecules at the gold tip induces chirality in the localized plasmonic resonance at the electrode-tip junction and manifests in an enantiospecific current response.

Ultrasensitive Microfluidic Paper-Based Electrochemical Biosensor Based on Molecularly Imprinted Film and Boronate Affinity Sandwich Assay for Glycoprotein Detection

In this work, we proposed a strategy that combined molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) and hybridization chain reaction into microfluidic paper-based analytical devices for ultrasensitive detection of target glycoprotein ovalbumin (OVA). During the fabrication, Au nanorods with a large surface area and superior conductibility were grown on paper cellulosic fiber as a matrix to introduce a boronate affinity sandwich assay. The composite of MIPs including 4-mercaptophenylboronic acid (MPBA) was able to capture target glycoprotein OVA. SiO₂@Au nanocomposites labeled MPBA and cerium dioxide (CeO₂)-modified nicked DNA double-strand polymers (SiO₂@Au/dsDNA/CeO₂) as a signal tag were captured into the surface of the electrode in the presence of OVA. An electrochemical signal was generated by using nanoceria as redox-active catalytic amplifiers in the presence of 1-naphthol in electrochemical assays. As a result, the electrochemical assay was fabricated and could be applied in the detection of OVA in the wide linear range of 1 pg/mL to 1000 ng/mL with a relatively low detection limit of 0.87 pg/mL (S/N = 3). The results indicated that the proposed platform possessed potential applications in clinical diagnosis and other related fields.

Enantiomeric Recognition and Separation by Chiral Nanoparticles

Chiral molecules are stereoselective with regard to specific biological functions. Enantiomers differ considerably in their physiological reactions with the human body. Safeguarding the quality and safety of drugs requires an efficient analytical platform by which to selectively probe chiral compounds to ensure the extraction of single enantiomers. Asymmetric synthesis is a mature approach to the production of single enantiomers; however, it is poorly suited to mass production and allows for only specific enantioselective reactions. Furthermore, it is too expensive and time-consuming for the evaluation of therapeutic drugs in the early stages of development. These limitations have prompted the development of surface-modified nanoparticles using amino acids, chiral organic ligands, or functional groups as chiral selectors applicable to a racemic mixture of chiral molecules. The fact that these combinations can be optimized in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and enantioselectivity makes them ideal for enantiomeric recognition and separation. In chiral resolution, molecules bond selectively to particle surfaces according to homochiral interactions, whereupon an enantiopure compound is extracted from the solution through a simple filtration process. In this review article, we discuss the fabrication of chiral nanoparticles and look at the ways their distinctive surface properties have been adopted in enantiomeric recognition and separation.

Controlled Vectorial Electron Transfer and Photoelectrochemical Applications of Layered Relay/Photosensitizer-Imprinted Au Nanoparticle Architectures on Electrodes

Two configurations of molecularly imprinted bis-aniline-bridged Au nanoparticles (NPs) for the specific binding of the electron acceptor N,N'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridinium (MV(2+) ) and for the photosensitizer Zn(II)-protoporphyrin IX (Zn(II)-PP-IX) are assembled on electrodes, and the photoelectrochemical features of the two configurations are discussed. Configuration I includes the MV(2+) -imprinted Au NPs matrix as a base layer, on which the Zn(II)-PP-IX-imprinted Au NPs layer is deposited, while configuration II consists of a bilayer corresponding to the reversed imprinting order. Irradiation of the two electrodes in the presence of a benzoquinone/benzohydroquinone redox probe yields photocurrents of unique features: (i) Whereas configuration I yields an anodic photocurrent, the photocurrent generated by configuration II is cathodic. (ii) The photocurrents obtained upon irradiation of the imprinted electrodes are substantially higher as compared to the nonimprinted surfaces. The high photocurrents generated by the imprinted Au NPs-modified electrodes are attributed to the effective loading of the imprinted matrices with the MV(2+) and Zn(II)-PP-IX units and to the effective charge separation proceeding in the systems. The directional anodic/cathodic photocurrents are rationalized in terms of vectorial electron transfer processes dictated by the imprinting order and by the redox potentials of the photosensitizer/electron acceptor units associated with the imprinted sites in the two configurations.

Layered Metal Nanoparticle Structures on Electrodes for Sensing, Switchable Controlled Uptake/Release, and Photo-electrochemical Applications

Layered metal nanoparticle (NP) assemblies provide highly porous and conductive composites of unique electrical and optical (plasmonic) properties. Two methods to construct layered metal NP matrices are described, and these include the layer-by-layer deposition of NPs, or the electropolymerization of monolayer-functionalized NPs, specifically thioaniline-modified metal NPs. The layered NP composites are used as sensing matrices through the use of electrochemistry or surface plasmon resonance (SPR) as transduction signals. The crosslinking of the metal NP composites with molecular receptors, or the imprinting of molecular recognition sites into the electropolymerized NP matrices lead to selective and chiroselective sensing interfaces. Furthermore, the electrosynthesis of redox-active, imprinted, bis-aniline bridged Au NP composites yields electrochemically triggered "sponges" for the switchable uptake and release of electron-acceptor substrates, and results in conductive surfaces of electrochemically controlled wettability. Also, photosensitizer-relay-crosslinked Au NP composites, or electrochemically polymerized layered semiconductor quantum dot/metal NP matrices on electrodes, are demonstrated as functional nanostructures for photoelectrochemical applications.

Boronate affinity materials for separation and molecular recognition: structure, properties and applications

Boronate affinity materials, as unique sorbents, have emerged as important media for the selective separation and molecular recognition of cis-diol-containing compounds. With the introduction of boronic acid functionality, boronate affinity materials exhibit several significant advantages, including broad-spectrum selectivity, reversible covalent binding, pH-controlled capture/release, fast association/desorption kinetics, and good compatibility with mass spectrometry. Because cis-diol-containing biomolecules, including nucleosides, saccharides, glycans, glycoproteins and so on, are the important targets in current research frontiers such as metabolomics, glycomics and proteomics, boronate affinity materials have gained rapid development and found increasing applications in the last decade. In this review, we critically survey recent advances in boronate affinity materials. We focus on fundamental considerations as well as important progress and new boronate affinity materials reported in the last decade. We particularly discuss on the effects of the structure of boronate ligands and supporting materials on the properties of boronate affinity materials, such as binding pH, affinity, selectivity, binding capacity, tolerance for interference and so on. A variety of promising applications, including affinity separation, proteomics, metabolomics, disease diagnostics and aptamer selection, are introduced with main emphasis on how boronate affinity materials can solve the issues in the applications and what merits boronate affinity materials can provide.

Selective glycoprotein detection through covalent templating and allosteric click-imprinting

A hierarchical bottom-up route exploiting reversible covalent interactions with boronic acids and so-called click chemistry for selective glycoprotein detection is described. The self-assembled and imprinted surfaces confer high binding affinities, nanomolar sensitivity, exceptional glycoprotein specificity and selectivity.

Many glycoproteins are intimately linked to the onset and progression of numerous heritable or acquired diseases of humans, including cancer. Indeed the recognition of specific glycoproteins remains a significant challenge in analytical method and diagnostic development. Herein, a hierarchical bottom-up route exploiting reversible covalent interactions with boronic acids and so-called click chemistry for the fabrication of glycoprotein selective surfaces that surmount current antibody constraints is described. The self-assembled and imprinted surfaces, containing specific glycoprotein molecular recognition nanocavities, confer high binding affinities, nanomolar sensitivity, exceptional glycoprotein specificity and selectivity with as high as 30 fold selectivity for prostate specific antigen (PSA) over other glycoproteins. This synthetic, robust and highly selective recognition platform can be used in complex biological media and be recycled multiple times with no performance decrement.

A facile one-pot synthesis of l-DOPA imprinted silica nanospheres for chiral separation and in vitro controlled release

A facile one-pot synthesis of l-DOPA imprinted silica nanospheres for chiral separation and in vitro controlled release.

Molecular imprinting science and technology: a survey of the literature for the years 2004-2011

Herein, we present a survey of the literature covering the development of molecular imprinting science and technology over the years 2004-2011. In total, 3779 references to the original papers, reviews, edited volumes and monographs from this period are included, along with recently identified uncited materials from prior to 2004, which were omitted in the first instalment of this series covering the years 1930-2003. In the presentation of the assembled references, a section presenting reviews and monographs covering the area is followed by sections describing fundamental aspects of molecular imprinting including the development of novel polymer formats. Thereafter, literature describing efforts to apply these polymeric materials to a range of application areas is presented. Current trends and areas of rapid development are discussed.

DNA sensors and aptasensors based on the hemin/G-quadruplex-controlled aggregation of Au NPs in the presence of L-cysteine

L-cysteine induces the aggregation of Au nanoparticles (NPs), resulting in a color transition from red to blue due to interparticle plasmonic coupling in the aggregated structure. The hemin/G-quadruplex horseradish peroxidase-mimicking DNAzyme catalyzes the aerobic oxidation of L-cysteine to cystine, a process that inhibits the aggregation of the NPs. The degree of inhibition of the aggregation process is controlled by the concentration of the DNAzyme in the system. These functions are implemented to develop sensing platforms for the detection of a target DNA, for the analysis of aptamer-substrate complexes, and for the analysis of L-cysteine in human urine samples. A hairpin DNA structure that includes a recognition site for the DNA analyte and a caged G-quadruplex sequence, is opened in the presence of the target DNA. The resulting self-assembled hemin/G-quadruplex acts as catalyst that controls the aggregation of the Au NPs. Also, the thrombin-binding aptamer folds into a G-quadruplex nanostructure upon binding to thrombin. The association of hemin to the resulting G-quadruplex aptamer-thrombin complex leads to a catalytic label that controls the L-cysteine-mediated aggregation of the Au NPs. The hemin/G-qaudruplex-controlled aggregation of Au NPs process is further implemented for visual and spectroscopic detection of L-cysteine concentration in urine samples.

Cysteine-mediated aggregation of Au nanoparticles: the development of a H2O2 sensor and oxidase-based biosensors

The cysteine-stimulated aggregation of Au nanoparticles (Au NPs) is used as an auxiliary reporting system for the optical detection of H2O2, for optical probing of the glucose oxidase (GOx) and the catalyzed oxidation of glucose, for probing the biocatalytic cascade composed of acetylcholine esterase/choline oxidase (AChE/ChOx), and for following the inhibition of AChE. The analytical paradigm is based on the I(-)-catalyzed oxidation of cysteine by H2O2 to cystine, a process that prohibits the cysteine-triggered aggregation of the Au NPs. The system enabled the analysis of H2O2 with a detection limit of 2 μM. As the GOx-biocatalyzed oxidation of glucose yields H2O2, and the AChE/ChOx cascade leads to the formation of H2O2, the two biocatalytic processes could be probed by the cysteine-stimulated aggregation of the Au NPs. Since AChE is inhibited by 1,5-bis(4-allyldimethylammonium phenyl)pentane-3-one dibromide, the biocatalytic AChE/ChOx cascade is inhibited by the inhibitor, thus leading to the enhanced cysteine-mediated aggregation of the NPs. The results suggest the potential implementation of the cysteine-mediated aggregation of Au NPs in the presence of AChE/ChOx as a sensing platform for the optical detection of chemical warfare agents.

Molecularly imprinted aptamers of gold nanoparticles for the enzymatic inhibition and detection of thrombin

We prepared thrombin-binding aptamer-conjugated gold nanoparticles (TBA-Au NPs) through a molecularly imprinted (MP) approach, which provide highly efficient inhibition activity toward the polymerization of fibrinogen. Au NPs (diameter, 13 nm), 15-mer thrombin-binding aptamer (TBA(15)) with different thymidine linkers, and 29-mer thrombin-binding aptamer (TBA(29)) with different thymidine linkers (Tn) in the presence of thrombin (Thr) as a template were used to prepare MP-Thr-TBA(15)/TBA(29)-Tn-Au NPs. Thrombin molecules were then removed from Au NPs surfaces by treating with 100 mM Tris-NaOH (pH ca. 13.0) to form MP-TBA(15)/TBA(29)-Tn-Au NPs. The length of the thymidine linkers and TBA density on Au NPs surfaces have strong impact on the orientation, flexibility, and stability of MP-TBA(15)/TBA(29)-Tn-Au NPs, leading to their stronger binding strength with thrombin. MP-TBA(15)/TBA(29)-T(15)-Au NPs (ca. 42 TBA(15) and 42 TBA(29) molecules per Au NP; 15-mer thymidine on aptamer terminal) provided the highest binding affinity toward thrombin with a dissociation constant of 5.2 × 10(-11) M. As a result, they had 8 times higher anticoagulant (inhibitory) potency relative to TBA(15)/TBA(29)-T(15)-Au NPs (prepared in the absence of thrombin). We further conducted thrombin clotting time (TCT) measurements in plasma samples and found that MP-TBA(15)/TBA(29)-T(15)-Au NPs had greater anticoagulation activity relative to four commercial drugs (heparin, argatroban, hirudin, and warfarin). In addition, we demonstrated that thrombin induced the formation of aggregates from MP-TBA(15)-T(15)-Au NPs and MP-TBA(29)-T(15)-Au NPs, thereby allowing the colorimetric detection of thrombin at the nanomolar level in serum samples. Our result demonstrates that our simple molecularly imprinted approach can be applied for preparing various functional nanomaterials to control enzyme activity and targeting important proteins.

Surface plasmon resonance biosensors incorporating gold nanoparticles

SPR biosensing is increasingly popular for the detection of a multitude of biomolecules. It offers label-free detection and study of proteins, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules in real time. A recent trend involves incorporation of AuNPs, either within the sensing surface itself or as signal enhancing tagging molecules. The importance of AuNP and detecting agent spacing is described and techniques using macromolecular spacing aids are highlighted. Recent methods to enhance SPR detection capabilities using gold nanoparticles are reviewed, as well as device fabrication and the results of incorporation. SPR detection is a highly versatile method for the detection of biomolecules and, with the incorporation of AuNPs, shows promise in extending it to a number of new applications.

Electrochemically triggered Au nanoparticles "sponges" for the controlled uptake and release of a photoisomerizable dithienylethene guest substrate

1,2-Di(2-methyl-5-(N-methylpyridinium)-thien-3-yl)-cyclopentene undergoes a reversible photoisomerization between open and closed states. The closed isomer state exhibits electron acceptor properties, whereas its irradiation using visible light (λ > 530 nm) yields the open state that lacks electron acceptor features. The electropolymerization of thioaniline-functionalized Au nanoparticles (NPs) in the presence of the closed photoisomer state yields a molecularly imprinted Au NPs matrix, cross-linked by redox-active bis-aniline π-donor bridges. The closed isomer is stabilized in the imprinted sites of the bis-aniline-bridged Au NPs composite by donor-acceptor interactions. The electrochemical oxidation of the bis-aniline bridging units to the quinoid acceptor state leads to imprinted sites that lack affinity interactions for the binding of the closed state to the matrix, leading to the release of the closed photoisomer to the electrolyte solution. By the cyclic reduction and oxidation of the bridging units to the bis-aniline and quinoid states, the reversible electrochemically controlled uptake and release of the closed photoisomer is demonstrated. The quantitative uptake and release of the closed isomer to and from the imprinted Au NPs composites is followed by application of CdSe/ZnS quantum dots as auxiliary probes. Similarly, by the reversible photochemical isomerization of the closed substrate to the open substrate (λ > 530 nm) and the reversible photoizomerization of the open substrate to the closed state (λ = 302 nm), the cyclic photonic uptake and release of the closed substrate to and from the imprinted Au NPs matrix are demonstrated. Finally, we demonstrate that the electrochemically stimulated uptake and release of the closed substrate to and from the imprinted Au NPs composite controls the wettability of the resulting surface.

Determination of lysozyme at the nanogram level in food sample using Resonance Rayleigh-scattering method with Au nanoparticles as probe

A new method for determination of lysozyme with high sensitivity based on Resonance Rayleigh scattering (RRS) by using Au nanoparticles as a probe was proposed in this experiment. The RRS spectrum, nonlinear scattering (second-order scattering (SOS), frequency doubling scattering (FDS)) spectra and absorption spectrum of the Au nanoparticles-lysozyme system have been analyzed. In addition, the effects of several factors on scattering intensities were investigated, including pH value of solution, amount of Au nanoparticles, mixing sequence of each reagent and the coexisting substances. The results showed that the coexisting substances have little influence on the RRS intensities of the systems. Moreover, the possible mechanism for the RRS enhancement of Au nanoparticles-lysozyme system was preliminary discussed. The RRS method for determination of lysozyme has good sensitivity and selectivity with the detection limits 30.1 ng/ml. The contents of lysozyme were determined with recoveries of 98.2-105.4% and relativity relative standard deviation (RSD) of 0.3-3.7%, respectively. It proved that the method established in our study is suitable for the determination of lysozyme in synthetic sample and natural chicken egg white sample.

Molecularly imprinted Au nanoparticles composites on Au surfaces for the surface plasmon resonance detection of pentaerythritol tetranitrate, nitroglycerin, and ethylene glycol dinitrate

Molecularly imprinted Au nanoparticles (NPs) composites are generated on Au-coated glass surfaces. The imprinting process involves the electropolymerization of thioaniline-functionalized Au NPs (3.5 nm) on a thioaniline monolayer-modified Au surface in the presence of a carboxylic acid, acting as a template analogue for the respective explosive. The exclusion of the imprinting template from the Au NPs matrix yields the respective imprinted composites. The binding of the analyte explosives to the Au NPs matrixes is probed by surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy, SPR, where the electronic coupling between the localized plasmon of the Au NPs and the surface plasmon wave leads to the amplification of the SPR responses originating from the dielectric changes of the matrixes upon binding of the different explosive materials. The resulting imprinted matrixes reveal high affinities and selectivity toward the imprinted explosives. Using citric acid as an imprinting template, Au NPs matrixes for the specific analysis of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) or of nitroglycerin (NG) were prepared, leading to detection limits of 200 fM and 20 pM, respectively. Similarly, using maleic acid or fumaric acid as imprinting templates, high-affinity sensing composites for ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN) were synthesized, leading to a detection limit of 400 fM for both matrixes.