1
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Dietrich A, Gajdiss M, Türck M, Monk I, Bierbaum G. Bacterial Two Component Systems: Overexpression and Purification: In Vitro and In Vivo Inhibitor Screens. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2601:313-333. [PMID: 36445592 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2855-3_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial histidine kinases are promising targets for new antimicrobial agents. In antibacterial therapy, such agents could inhibit bacterial growth by targeting essential two-component regulatory systems or resensitize bacteria to known antibiotics by blocking stress responses upon cell wall or cell membrane damage. However, (i) activity assays using truncated kinase proteins, that is, the cytoplasmic domains containing the conserved histidine residue for phosphorylation, have been shown to produce artifacts, and (ii) the purification of the full-length histidine kinases is complicated. Here, we describe a standard protocol for the recombinant expression and purification of functional full-length histidine kinases and other membrane proteins from Gram-positive bacteria that do not harbor more than two trans-membrane domains in an Escherichia coli host. This guide also presents in vitro and in vivo phosphorylation assays to screen for new antimicrobial compounds that target bacterial histidine kinases, either using a traditional radioactively labeled ATP assay to quantify histidine kinase phosphorylation or Phos-tag acrylamide gel electrophoresis to examine histidine kinase phosphorylation through mobility shift in the polyacrylamide gel. In addition, we describe the use of Phos-tag combined with a western blot approach to visualize the phosphorylation of a response regulator in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Dietrich
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Mike Gajdiss
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Michael Türck
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ian Monk
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Gabriele Bierbaum
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
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2
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King A, Blackledge MS. Evaluation of small molecule kinase inhibitors as novel antimicrobial and antibiofilm agents. Chem Biol Drug Des 2021; 98:1038-1064. [PMID: 34581492 PMCID: PMC8616828 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.13962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is a global and pressing concern. Our current therapeutic arsenal is increasingly limited as bacteria are developing resistance at a rate that far outpaces our ability to create new treatments. Novel approaches to treating and curing bacterial infections are urgently needed. Bacterial kinases have been increasingly explored as novel drug targets and are poised for development into novel therapeutic agents to combat bacterial infections. This review describes several general classes of bacterial kinases that play important roles in bacterial growth, antibiotic resistance, and biofilm formation. General features of these kinase classes are discussed and areas of particular interest for the development of inhibitors will be highlighted. Small molecule kinase inhibitors are described and organized by phenotypic effect, spotlighting particularly interesting inhibitors with novel functions and potential therapeutic benefit. Finally, we provide our perspective on the future of bacterial kinase inhibition as a viable strategy to combat bacterial infections and overcome the pressures of increasing antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley King
- Department of Chemistry, High Point University, One University Parkway, High Point, NC 27268
| | - Meghan S. Blackledge
- Department of Chemistry, High Point University, One University Parkway, High Point, NC 27268
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3
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Fihn CA, Carlson EE. Targeting a highly conserved domain in bacterial histidine kinases to generate inhibitors with broad spectrum activity. Curr Opin Microbiol 2021; 61:107-114. [PMID: 33932730 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2021.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
With the rise in antimicrobial resistance and the dearth of effective strategies to combat this threat, the development of novel therapies is of utmost importance. Targeting of bacterial signaling through their the two-component systems (TCSs) may be a viable strategy. TCSs are comprised of a sensory histidine kinase (HK), of which a bacterium can have up to 160 distinct proteins, and a cognate response regulator (RR). The TCSs are generally non-essential for life, but control many virulence and antibiotic-resistance mechanisms. This, along with their absence in animals makes the TCSs an attractive target for antimicrobial therapy, whether as a stand-alone treatments or adjuvants for existing therapies. This review focuses on progress in the development of inhibitors that target the HK ATP-binding domain. Because this domain is highly conserved, it may be feasible to disrupt multiple TCSs within a single organism to increase effectiveness and reduce pressure for the evolution of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conrad A Fihn
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55454, United States
| | - Erin E Carlson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55454, United States; Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States; Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55454, United States; Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55454, United States.
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4
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Chase OM, Espinasse A, Wilke KE, Carlson EE. Exploration of the Effects of γ-Phosphate-Modified ATP Analogues on Histidine Kinase Autophosphorylation. Biochemistry 2018; 57:4368-4373. [PMID: 29944360 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
While two-component systems (TCSs), composed of a sensor histidine kinase (HK) and a response regulator, are the main signaling pathways in bacteria, global TCS activity remains poorly described. Here, we report the kinetic parameters of the HK autophosphorylation reaction using previously uncharacterized γ-phosphate-modified ATP analogues to further elucidate their utility as activity-based probes for global TCS analysis. Given the increased stability of thiophosphorylated histidine in comparison to that of the native phosphoryl modification, which is attributed to the decreased electrophilicity of this moiety, we anticipated that ATPγS may be turned over much more slowly by the HKs. Surprisingly, we found this not to be the case, with the turnover numbers decreasing <1 order of magnitude. Instead, we found that alkylation of the thiophosphate had a much more dramatic effect on turnover and, in one case, the binding affinity of this substrate analogue (BODIPY-FL-ATPγS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia M Chase
- Department of Chemistry , University of Minnesota , 207 Pleasant Street Southeast , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 , United States
| | - Adeline Espinasse
- Department of Chemistry , University of Minnesota , 207 Pleasant Street Southeast , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 , United States
| | - Kaelyn E Wilke
- Department of Chemistry , Indiana University , 800 East Kirkwood Avenue , Bloomington , Indiana 47405 , United States
| | - Erin E Carlson
- Department of Chemistry , University of Minnesota , 207 Pleasant Street Southeast , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 , United States.,Department of Chemistry , Indiana University , 800 East Kirkwood Avenue , Bloomington , Indiana 47405 , United States.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry , University of Minnesota , 208 Harvard Street Southeast , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55454 , United States.,Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics , University of Minnesota , 321 Church Street Southeast , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55454 , United States
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5
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Bacterial Histidine Kinases: Overexpression, Purification, and Inhibitor Screen. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1520:247-259. [PMID: 27873257 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6634-9_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial histidine kinases are promising targets for new antimicrobial agents. In antibacterial therapy such agents could inhibit bacterial growth by targeting essential two-component regulatory systems or resensitize bacteria to known antibiotics by blocking stress responses like the cell wall stress response. However, (1) activity assays using the truncated phosphorylation domains have been shown to produce artifacts and (2) the purification of the full-length histidine kinases is complicated. Here, we describe a standard protocol for the recombinant expression and purification of functional full-length histidine kinases and other membrane proteins from gram-positive bacteria that do not harbor more than two trans-membrane domains using an Escherichia coli host. This guide also presents in vitro phosphorylation assays to screen for new antimicrobial compounds that target bacterial histidine kinases using radioactively labeled ATP and, as a novel approach, Phos-tag acrylamide gel electrophoresis to detect phosphorylated proteins by mobility shift in the polyacrylamide gel.
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6
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Vo CD, Shebert HL, Zikovich S, Dryer RA, Huang TP, Moran LJ, Cho J, Wassarman DR, Falahee BE, Young PD, Gu GH, Heinl JF, Hammond JW, Jackvony TN, Frederick TE, Blair JA. Repurposing Hsp90 inhibitors as antibiotics targeting histidine kinases. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2017; 27:5235-5244. [PMID: 29110989 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2017.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
To address the growing need for new antimicrobial agents, we explored whether inhibition of bacterial signaling machinery could inhibit bacterial growth. Because bacteria rely on two-component signaling systems to respond to environmental changes, and because these systems are both highly conserved and mediated by histidine kinases, inhibiting histidine kinases may provide broad spectrum antimicrobial activity. The histidine kinase ATP binding domain is conserved with the ATPase domain of eukaryotic Hsp90 molecular chaperones. To find a chemical scaffold for compounds that target histidine kinases, we leveraged this conservation. We screened ATP competitive Hsp90 inhibitors against CckA, an essential histidine kinase in Caulobacter crescentus that controls cell growth, and showed that the diaryl pyrazole is a promising scaffold for histidine kinase inhibition. We synthesized a panel of derivatives and found that they inhibit the histidine kinases C. crescentus CckA and Salmonella PhoQ but not C. crescentus DivJ; and they inhibit bacterial growth in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chau D Vo
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Hanna L Shebert
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Shannon Zikovich
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Rebecca A Dryer
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Tony P Huang
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Lindsey J Moran
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Juno Cho
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Douglas R Wassarman
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Bryn E Falahee
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Peter D Young
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Garrick H Gu
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - James F Heinl
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - John W Hammond
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Taylor N Jackvony
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA
| | - Thomas E Frederick
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jimmy A Blair
- Williams College, Department of Chemistry, 47 Lab Campus Drive, Williamstown, MA 01267, USA.
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7
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Goswami M, Wilke KE, Carlson EE. Rational Design of Selective Adenine-Based Scaffolds for Inactivation of Bacterial Histidine Kinases. J Med Chem 2017; 60:8170-8182. [PMID: 28933546 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial histidine kinases (HKs) are quintessential regulatory enzymes found ubiquitously in bacteria. Apart from their regulatory roles, they are also involved in the production of virulence factors and conferring resistance to various antibiotics in pathogenic microbes. We have previously reported compounds that inhibit multiple HKs by targeting the conserved catalytic and ATP-binding (CA) domain. Herein, we conduct a detailed structure-activity relationship assessment of adenine-based inhibitors using biochemical and docking methods. These studies have resulted in several observations. First, interaction of an inhibitor's amine group with the conserved active-site Asp is essential for activity and likely dictates its orientation in the binding pocket. Second, a N-NH-N triad in the inhibitor scaffold is highly preferred for binding to conserved Gly:Asp:Asn residues. Lastly, hydrophobic electron-withdrawing groups at several positions in the adenine core enhance potency. The selectivity of these inhibitors was tested against heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), which possesses a similar ATP-binding fold. We found that groups that target the ATP-lid portion of the catalytic domain, such as a six-membered ring, confer selectivity for HKs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manibarsha Goswami
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota , 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55454, United States
| | - Kaelyn E Wilke
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University , 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Erin E Carlson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota , 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55454, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Indiana University , 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota , 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota , 321 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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8
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Putative histidine kinase inhibitors with antibacterial effect against multi-drug resistant clinical isolates identified by in vitro and in silico screens. Sci Rep 2016; 6:26085. [PMID: 27173778 PMCID: PMC4865847 DOI: 10.1038/srep26085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Novel antibacterials are urgently needed to address the growing problem of bacterial resistance to conventional antibiotics. Two-component systems (TCS) are widely used by bacteria to regulate gene expression in response to various environmental stimuli and physiological stress and have been previously proposed as promising antibacterial targets. TCS consist of a sensor histidine kinase (HK) and an effector response regulator. The HK component contains a highly conserved ATP-binding site that is considered to be a promising target for broad-spectrum antibacterial drugs. Here, we describe the identification of putative HK autophosphorylation inhibitors following two independent experimental approaches: in vitro fragment-based screen via differential scanning fluorimetry and in silico structure-based screening, each followed up by the exploration of analogue compounds as identified by ligand-based similarity searches. Nine of the tested compounds showed antibacterial effect against multi-drug resistant clinical isolates of bacterial pathogens and include three novel scaffolds, which have not been explored so far in other antibacterial compounds. Overall, putative HK autophosphorylation inhibitors were found that together provide a promising starting point for further optimization as antibacterials.
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9
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Kim W, Conery AL, Rajamuthiah R, Fuchs BB, Ausubel FM, Mylonakis E. Identification of an Antimicrobial Agent Effective against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Persisters Using a Fluorescence-Based Screening Strategy. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0127640. [PMID: 26039584 PMCID: PMC4454602 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Persisters are a subpopulation of normal bacterial cells that show tolerance to conventional antibiotics. Persister cells are responsible for recalcitrant chronic infections and new antibiotics effective against persisters would be a major development in the treatment of these infections. Using the reporter dye SYTOX Green that only stains cells with permeabilized membranes, we developed a fluorescence-based screening assay in a 384-well format for identifying compounds that can kill methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) persisters. The assay proved robust and suitable for high throughput screening (Z`-factor: >0.7). In screening a library of hits from a previous screen, which identified compounds that had the ability to block killing of the nematode Caenorhabditis by MRSA, we discovered that the low molecular weight compound NH125, a bacterial histidine kinase inhibitor, kills MRSA persisters by causing cell membrane permeabilization, and that 5 μg/mL of the compound can kill all cells to the limit of detection in a 108 CFU/mL culture of MRSA persisters within 3h. Furthermore, NH125 disrupts 50% of established MRSA biofilms at 20 μg/mL and completely eradicates biofilms at 160 μg/mL. Our results suggest that the SYTOX Green screening assay is suitable for large-scale projects to identify small molecules effective against MRSA persisters and should be easily adaptable to a broad range of pathogens that form persisters. Since NH125 has strong bactericidal properties against MRSA persisters and high selectivity to bacteria, we believe NH125 is a good anti-MRSA candidate drug that should be further evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wooseong Kim
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rhode Island Hospital, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Annie L. Conery
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Rajmohan Rajamuthiah
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rhode Island Hospital, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Beth Burgwyn Fuchs
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rhode Island Hospital, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Frederick M. Ausubel
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Eleftherios Mylonakis
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rhode Island Hospital, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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10
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Wilke K, Francis S, Carlson EE. Inactivation of multiple bacterial histidine kinases by targeting the ATP-binding domain. ACS Chem Biol 2015; 10:328-35. [PMID: 25531939 PMCID: PMC4301073 DOI: 10.1021/cb5008019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Antibacterial agents that exploit new targets will be required to combat the perpetual rise of bacterial resistance to current antibiotics. We are exploring the inhibition of histidine kinases, constituents of two-component systems. Two-component systems are the primary signaling pathways that bacteria utilize to respond to their environment. They are ubiquitous in bacteria and trigger various pathogenic mechanisms. To attenuate these signaling pathways, we sought to broadly target the histidine kinase family by focusing on their highly conserved ATP-binding domain. Development of a fluorescence polarization displacement assay facilitated high-throughput screening of ∼53 000 diverse small molecules for binding to the ATP-binding pocket. Of these compounds, nine inhibited the catalytic activity of two or more histidine kinases. These scaffolds could provide valuable starting points for the design of broadly effective HK inhibitors, global reduction of bacterial signaling, and ultimately, a class of antibiotics that function by a new mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaelyn
E. Wilke
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Samson Francis
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Erin E. Carlson
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
- Department
of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, 212 South Hawthorne Drive, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
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11
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Bem AE, Velikova N, Pellicer MT, Baarlen PV, Marina A, Wells JM. Bacterial histidine kinases as novel antibacterial drug targets. ACS Chem Biol 2015; 10:213-24. [PMID: 25436989 DOI: 10.1021/cb5007135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial histidine kinases (HKs) are promising targets for novel antibacterials. Bacterial HKs are part of bacterial two-component systems (TCSs), the main signal transduction pathways in bacteria, regulating various processes including virulence, secretion systems and antibiotic resistance. In this review, we discuss the biological importance of TCSs and bacterial HKs for the discovery of novel antibacterials, as well as published TCS and HK inhibitors that can be used as a starting point for structure-based approaches to develop novel antibacterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka E. Bem
- Host−Microbe
Interactomics, Wageningen University, De Elst 1, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nadya Velikova
- Instituto
de Biomedicina
de Valencia-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (IBV-CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010-Valencia, Spain
| | - M. Teresa Pellicer
- R&D Department Interquim, Ferrer HealthTech, Joan Buscalla 10, 08137-Sant Cugat del Valles Barcelona, Spain
| | - Peter van Baarlen
- Host−Microbe
Interactomics, Wageningen University, De Elst 1, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alberto Marina
- Instituto
de Biomedicina
de Valencia-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (IBV-CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010-Valencia, Spain
- Centro de Investigacion
Biomedica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBER-ISCIII), Jaume Roig 11, 46010-Valencia, Spain
| | - Jerry M. Wells
- Host−Microbe
Interactomics, Wageningen University, De Elst 1, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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