Triazoles in the environment: An update on sample pretreatment and analysis methods

Triazoles, due to their high bactericidal performance, have been widely used in the agricultural, clinical, and chemical industry. However, triazoles have been proven to cause endocrine-toxic and organ impairment in humans as a potentially toxic substance. Besides, because of the improper use and difficulty of degradation, triazoles pesticide residues left in the environment could pose a threat to the environment. Therefore, the rapid, reliable, accurate, and high-sensitivity triazoles analysis methods are significantly essential to effectively monitor their presence in various samples and safeguard human health. This review aims to summarize and update the progress of the pretreatment and analytical methods of triazole fungicides in environmental samples from 2012 to 2024. Common pretreatment methods used to extract and purify targets include simple steps (e.g., protein precipitation and coated blade spray), liquid-liquid extraction, solid-phase extraction, and various microextraction methods such as liquid-phase microextraction and solid-phase microextraction, among others. Detection methods mainly include liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, supercritical fluid chromatography, sensing methods, and capillary electrophoresis. In addition, we elaborate and compare the advantages and disadvantages of different pretreatment and analytical methods, and their development prospects are discussed.

Synthesis and evaluation of a chitosan nanomaterial as efficient sorbent for determination of fungicide residues in waters and wine by liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry

In the present study a novel, cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and efficient analytical method was developed to analyze fungicide residues in water and wine. The method relies on the application of a newly developed sorbent nanomaterial named Nano-Cs-NAT, synthesized by modifying chitosan, a naturally occurring, low-cost polysaccharide, through grafting with two acrylic monomers and a cross-linker. Nano-Cs-NAT was introduced as analytical sorbent for Dispersive Micro Solid Phase Extraction (D-μ-SPE) before Liquid Chromatography-Orbitrap High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (LC-Orbitrap HRMS) analysis of twelve fungicides commonly used in viticulture (among the others, triazoles, strobilurines and N-substituted imidazoles). Characterization of the sorbent was conducted, confirming the successful acrylation of chitosan. A multivariate approach was employed to optimize D-μ-SPE extraction parameters. The material was found to be highly effective in simultaneously purifying and concentrating the target analytes, enhancing overall analytical efficiency and sensitivity. The Nano-Cs-NAT-D-μ-SPE-LC-Orbitrap-HRMS method was thoroughly validated, exhibiting good recoveries (72-104%), reproducibility (average RSD ≤ 6%) and repeatability (average RSD ≤ 7%). It also achieved low limits of detection (LOD) in river water (average LOD of 0.04 μg L-1) and wine (average LOD of 0.72 μg kg-1), highlighting its potential for routine fungicide residue analysis. This developed method addresses environmental and food safety concerns by providing an efficient solution for detecting fungicide residues in waters and wine.

A Comprehensive Review on Grape Juice Beverage in Context to Its Processing and Composition with Future Perspectives to Maximize Its Value

Red and purple grape juices (GJs) have long been consumed worldwide for their unique taste and nutritive value. Moreover, grape is postulated to play an important role in the improvement of cardiovascular risk factors owing to its rich polyphenol content. Little is known regarding GJ’s holistic chemistry and functionality as compared to those of other fruit juices. This review aims to compile the state-of-the art chemistry of colored grape juices and in context to its analysis and nutritional values. Further, a review of potential contaminants to be introduced during manufacturing and other factors that influence juice quality and or health effects are presented to help maximize GJ’s quality. A comparison between analytical methods for juice QC establishment is presented employing hyphenated platforms versus direct spectroscopic techniques. The enrichment of the colored skin with a myriad of phenolics poses it as a functional beverage compared to that of skinless juice.

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Recent Applications and Newly Developed Strategies of Solid-Phase Microextraction in Contaminant Analysis: Through the Environment to Humans

The present review aims to describe the recent and most impactful applications in pollutant analysis using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) technology in environmental, food, and bio-clinical analysis. The covered papers were published in the last 5 years (2014–2019) thus providing the reader with information about the current state-of-the-art and the future potential directions of the research in pollutant monitoring using SPME. To this end, we revised the studies focused on the investigation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), pesticides, and emerging pollutants (EPs) including personal care products (PPCPs), in different environmental, food, and bio-clinical matrices. We especially emphasized the role that SPME is having in contaminant surveys following the path that goes from the environment to humans passing through the food web. Besides, this review covers the last technological developments encompassing the use of novel extraction coatings (e.g., metal-organic frameworks, covalent organic frameworks, PDMS-overcoated fiber), geometries (e.g., Arrow-SPME, multiple monolithic fiber-SPME), approaches (e.g., vacuum and cold fiber SPME), and on-site devices. The applications of SPME hyphenated with ambient mass spectrometry have also been described.

Assessment of magnetic core-shell mesoporous molecularly imprinted polymers for selective recognition of triazoles residual levels in cucumber

Functional magnetic nanomaterials based on molecular imprinting technique were successfully prepared on the surface of modified Fe₃O₄. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffractometer, and vibrating sample magnetometry were applied for characterization of the synthesized magnetic nanoparticles. The magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers (MMIPs) exhibited satisfactory magnetic response, specific recognition, and excellent adsorption capacity toward triazoles (maximum adsorption capacity of 9202.9 μg g^-1 for triadimefon). The obtained MMIPs were further used as magnetic dispersive solid-phase extraction (MDSPE) coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for detection of 20 triazoles in cucumber spiked at different levels. The mean recoveries were ranged from 79.9% to 110.3% and relative standard deviations (RSDs) were <11.2% (n = 5). Herein, we report a simple, rapid, environmentally friendly, and magnetic stuff recyclable approach for triazoles residual analysis in complicated agricultural products.

Efficient enrichment of triazole fungicides from fruit and vegetable samples by a spherical porous aromatic framework

A porous aromatic framework was synthesized and utilized as a novel SPME coating for efficient enrichment of triazole fungicides.

A new restricted access molecularly imprinted fiber for direct solid phase microextraction of benzodiazepines from plasma samples

Restricted access molecularly imprinted polymers (RAMIPs) are hybrid materials that present selective binding sites for a template (or similar molecules), and an external hydrophilic layer that avoids the binding of proteins to the material, making them appropriate for the sample preparation of protein fluids.

A Simple and Selective Fluorescent Sensor Chip for Indole-3-Butyric Acid in Mung Bean Sprouts Based on Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Coatings

In this paper, we report the preparation of molecularly imprinted polymer coatings on quartz chips for selective solid-phase microextraction and fluorescence sensing of the auxin, indole-3-butyric acid. The multiple copolymerization method was used to prepare polymer coatings on silylated quartz chips. The polymer preparation conditions (e.g., the solvent, monomer, and cross-linker) were investigated systemically to enhance the binding performance of the imprinted coatings. Direct solid-phase fluorescence measurements on the chips facilitated monitoring changes in coating performance. The average binding capacity of an imprinted polymer coated chip was approximately 152.9 µg, which was higher than that of a non-imprinted polymer coated chip (60.8 µg); the imprinted coatings showed the highest binding to IBA among the structural analogues, indicating that the coatings possess high selectivity toward the template molecule. The developed method was used for the determination of the auxin in mung bean extraction, and the recovery was found to be in the range of 91.5% to 97.5%, with an RSD (n = 3) of less than 7.4%. Thus, the present study provides a simple method for fabricating a fluorescent sensor chip for selective analysis.

Covalent Bonding of Metal-Organic Framework-5/Graphene Oxide Hybrid Composite to Stainless Steel Fiber for Solid-Phase Microextraction of Triazole Fungicides from Fruit and Vegetable Samples

A hybrid material of the zinc-based metal-organic framework-5 and graphene oxide (metal-organic framework-5/graphene oxide) was prepared as a novel fiber coating material for solid-phase microextraction (SPME). The SPME fibers were fabricated by covalent bonding via chemical cross-linking between the coating material metal-organic framework-5/graphene oxide and stainless steel wire. The prepared fiber was used for the extraction of five triazole fungicides from fruit and vegetable samples. Gas chromatography coupled with microelectron capture detector (GC-μECD) was used for quantification. The developed method gave a low limit of detection (0.05-1.58 ng g(-1)) and good linearity (0.17-100 ng g(-1)) for the determination of the triazole fungicides in fruit and vegetable samples. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) for five replicate extractions of the triazole fungicides ranged from 3.7 to 8.9%. The method recoveries for spiked fungicides (5, 20, and 50 ng g(-1)) in grape, apple, cucumber, celery cabbage, pear, cabbage, and tomato samples were in the range of 85.6-105.8% with the RSDs ranging from 3.6 to 11.4%, respectively, depending on both the analytes and samples. The metal-organic framework-5/graphene oxide coated fiber was stable enough for 120 extraction cycles without a significant loss of extraction efficiency. The method was suitable for the determination of triazole fungicides in fruit and vegetable samples.

Direct doping analysis of beta-blocker drugs from urinary samples by on-line molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry

The hydrophilic layer forms hydrogen bonds with water, minimizing the interference of this solvent in the analyte–polymer complex.