Contribution of the "Click Chemistry" Toolbox for the Design, Synthesis, and Resulting Applications of Innovative and Efficient Separative Supports: Time for Assessment

The last two decades have seen the rapid expansion of click chemistry methodology in various domains closely related to organic chemistry. It has notably been widely developed in the area of surface chemistry, mainly because of the high-yielding character of reactions of the "click" type. Especially, this powerful chemical reaction toolbox has been adapted to the preparation of stationary phases from the corresponding chromatographic supports. A plethora of selectors can thus be immobilized on either organic, inorganic, or hybrid stationary phases that can be used in different chromatographic modes. This review first highlights the few different chemical ligation strategies of the "click" type that are up to now mainly devoted to the development of functionalized supports for separation sciences. Then, it gives in a second part an up-to-date survey of the different studies dedicated to the preparation of click chemistry-based chromatographic supports while highlighting the powerful and versatile character of the "click" ligation strategy for the design, synthesis, and developments of more and more complex systems that can find promising applications in the area of analytical sciences, in domains as varied as enantioselective separation, glycomics, proteomics, genomics, metabolomics, etc.

Distinguishing enantiomeric amino acids with chiral cyclodextrin adducts and structures for lossless ion manipulations

Enantiomeric molecular evaluations remain an enormous challenge for current analytical techniques. To date, derivatization strategies and long separation times are generally required in these studies, and the development and implementation of new approaches are needed to increase speed and distinguish currently unresolvable compounds. Herein, we describe a method using chiral cyclodextrin adducts and structures for lossless ion manipulations (SLIM) and serpentine ultralong path with extended routing (SUPER) ion mobility (IM) to achieve rapid, high resolution separations of d and l enantiomeric amino acids. In the analyses, a chiral cyclodextrin is added to each sample. Two cyclodextrins were found to complex each amino acid molecule (i.e. potentially sandwiching the amino acid in their cavities) and forming host-guest noncovalent complexes that were distinct for each d and l amino acid pair studied and thus separable with IM in SLIM devices. The SLIM was also used to accumulate much larger ion populations than previously feasible for evaluation and therefore allow enantiomeric measurements of higher sensitivity, with gains in resolution from our ultralong path separation capabilities, than previously reported by any other IM-based approach.

High performance affinity chromatography and related separation methods for the analysis of biological and pharmaceutical agents

The last few decades have witnessed the development of many high-performance separation methods that use biologically related binding agents. The combination of HPLC with these binding agents results in a technique known as high performance affinity chromatography (HPAC). This review will discuss the general principles of HPAC and related techniques, with an emphasis on their use for the analysis of biological compounds and pharmaceutical agents. Various types of binding agents for these methods will be considered, including antibodies, immunoglobulin-binding proteins, aptamers, enzymes, lectins, transport proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Formats that will be discussed for these methods range from the direct detection of an analyte to indirect detection based on chromatographic immunoassays, as well as schemes based on analyte extraction or depletion, post-column detection, and multi-column systems. The use of biological agents in HPLC for chiral separations will also be considered, along with the use of HPAC as a tool to screen or study biological interactions. Various examples will be presented to illustrate these approaches and their applications in fields such as biochemistry, clinical chemistry, and pharmaceutical research.

Functionalities tuned enantioselectivity of phenylcarbamate cyclodextrin clicked chiral stationary phases in HPLC

The mixed chloro- and methyl- functionalities can greatly modulate the enantioselectivities of phenylcarbamate cyclodextrin (CD) clicked chiral stationary phases (CSPs). A comparison study is herein reported for per(4-chloro-3-methyl)phenylcarbamate and per(2-chloro-5-methyl)phenylcarbamate β-CD clicked CSPs (i.e., CCC4M3-CSP and CCC2M5-CSP). The enantioselectivity dependence on column temperature was studied in both normal-phase and reversed-phase mode high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The thermodynamic study revealed that the stronger intermolecular interactions can be formed between CCC4M3-CSP and chiral solutes to drive the chiral separation. The higher enantioselectivities of CCC4M3-CSP were further demonstrated with the enantioseparation of 17 model racemates in HPLC.

Thermo-responsive adsorption and separation of amino acid enantiomers using smart polymer-brush-modified magnetic nanoparticles

A novel type of multifunctional magnetic nanoparticle with highly chiral recognition capability, excellent thermo-sensitive adsorption and decomplexation properties toward amino acid enantiomers, and recyclability was developed in this study.

Facile one-pot synthesis of a aptamer-based organic-silica hybrid monolithic capillary column by "thiol-ene" click chemistry for detection of enantiomers of chemotherapeutic anthracyclines

In the current study, we developed a facile strategy for the one-pot synthesis of an aptamer-based organic-silica hybrid monolithic capillary column. A 5'-SH-modified aptamer, specifically targeting doxorubicin, was covalently modified in the hybrid silica monolithic column by a sol-gel method combined with "thiol-ene" click reaction. The prepared monolithic column had good stability and permeability, large specific surface, and showed excellent selectivity towards chemotherapeutic anthracyclines of doxorubicin and epirubicin. In addition, the enantiomers of doxorubicin and epirubicin can be easily separated by aptamer-based affinity monolithic capillary liquid chromatography. Furthermore, doxorubicin and epirubicin spiked in serum and urine were also successfully determined, which suggested that the complex biological matrix had a negligible effect on the detection of doxorubicin and epirubicin. Finally, we quantified the concentration of epirubicin in the serum of breast cancer patients treated with epirubicin by intravenous injection. The developed analytical method is cost-effective and rapid, and biological samples can be directly analyzed without any tedious sample pretreatment, which is extremely useful for monitoring medicines in serum and urine for pharmacokinetic studies.

Teicoplanin bonded sub-2 μm superficially porous particles for enantioseparation of native amino acids

Superficially porous particles (SPPs) demonstrate superior efficiency than totally porous particles in chiral separations. In order to obtain high efficiency and fast separation, sub-2 μm SPPs with high surface area are synthesized, and with teicoplanin bonded, such materials are successfully applied into the rapid enantioseparation of native amino acids. In brief, 1.27 ± 0.06 μm nonporous silica particles are prepared by a modified seeded growth method, followed by mesoporous shell fabrication via one-pot templated dissolution and redeposition strategy, and pore size expansion via acid-refluxing. The diameter of the formed SPPs is 1.49 ± 0.04 μm, with the shell thickness as 206 nm. Nitrogen physisorption experiments show that the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area is 213.6 m(2)/g and pore size is 9 nm. After teicoplanin derivatization with bonding capacity as 83.3 μmol/g, the prepared chiral stationary phase is packed into a stainless steel tube with the geometry of 50 mm × 2.1 mm i.d.. In less than 6.4 min, six native amino acids (norleucine, alanine, valine, methionine, leucine, norvaline) are enantioseparated with resolution factors ranging from 1.9 to 5.0. Besides, the resolution for chiral separation is improved with ethanol-water instead of methanol-water as the mobile phase. Moreover, the low temperature gives higher resolution, but longer retention time and higher backpressure. Finally, the effect of flow rate on enantiomeric separation is studied and fast chiral separation within 1 min is obtained with flow rate of 0.4 mL/min. All these results show that the synthesized teicoplanin bonded sub-2 μm SPPs have great potential to achieve the enantioseparation of native amino acids with high resolution and rapid speed.

Spectral, thermal, and molecular modeling studies on the encapsulation of selected sulfonamide drugs in β-cyclodextrin nano-cavity

In the present work the inclusion complexation of three sulfonamide (SA) drugs, namely sulfisoxazole (SSX), sulfamethizole (SMZ), and Sulfamethazine (STM) with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) has been investigated using UV-Vis spectroscopy, DSC, (1)H NMR spectroscopy, and molecular modeling methods. The binding constant (Kb) of SA:β-CD inclusion complexation was determined via applying the modified form of Benesi-Hildebrand equation employing the changes in absorbance at λmax. Obtained results revealed that SA drugs form 1:1 inclusion complex with β-CD with Kb of 650, 1532, 714M(-1) at 25°C for SSX, SMZ, and STM, respectively. The UV-Vis absorption spectra displayed solvatochromic behavior of bathochromic shift with decreasing solvent polarity that in turn is good agreement with their behavior in the presence of β-CD in terms of environment polarity dependency. The inclusion complex formation between β-CD and tested SA drugs in liquid and solid states was confirmed by (1)H NMR and DSC, respectively. Using semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods at PM3 theoretical level, inclusion complexes' structures as well as energetic and thermodynamic parameters of encapsulation were elucidated. Obtained results revealed that the encapsulation is favorably energetic and enthalpic in nature with the inclusion of the aniline moiety through the wide rim side of β-CD nano-cavity. Further, molecular modeling revealed that β-CD encapsulation of SA drugs reduced their (EHOMO-ELUMO) gap.

Multianalyte determination of the kinetic rate constants of drug-cyclodextrin supermolecules by high performance affinity chromatography

The kinetics of the dissociation is fundamental to the formation and the in vivo performance of cyclodextrin supramolecules. The individual determination of the apparent dissociation rate constant (kd,app) using high performance affinity chromatography (HPAC) is a tedious process requiring numerous separate studies and massive data fitting. In this study, the multianalyte approach was employed to simultaneously measure the kd,app values of three drugs through one injection based on the investigation of the dependence of drug-cyclodextrin interaction kinetics on the mobile phase composition. As a result, the kd,app values increased when decreasing the ion strength, increasing the ionization of drugs and adding extra organic solvents. The values of kd,app for acetaminophen, phenacetin and S-flurbiprofen estimated by the multianalyte approach were 8.54±1.81, 5.36±0.94 and 0.17±0.02s(-1), respectively, which were in good agreement with those determined separately (8.31±0.58, 5.01±0.42 and 0.15±0.01s(-1)). For both of the single and multiple flow rate peak profiling methods, the results of the multianalyte approach were statistically equivalent with that of the single compound analysis for all of the three drugs (p>0.05). The multianalyte approach can be employed for the efficient evaluation of the drug-cyclodextrin kinetics with less variance caused by cyclodextrin column bleeding.

Chiral differentiation of novel isoxazoline derivatives on “clicked” thioether and triazole bridged cyclodextrin chiral stationary phases

This work first demonstrates the complete chiral resolution of novel isoxazoline derivatives on smartly designed triazole- and thioether-bridged native cyclodextrin (CD) chiral stationary phases (CSPs).