A convenient synthesis of quinolizinium salts through Rh(III) or Ru(II)-catalyzed C-H bond activation of 2-alkenylpyridines

Phosphoric Acid-Catalyzed Alkene Difunctionalization of 2-Vinylpyridines via HOMO/LUMO Biactivated Diels-Alder Reaction

The difunctionalization of vinylpyridines based on the cyclization strategy remains rare and underdeveloped, in contrast to the well-developed hydrogen functionalization. Current exploration on [4 + 2] cyclization of vinylpyridines mainly relies on extremely high temperatures and the LUMO activation of vinylpyridines using boron trifluoride as a strong Lewis acid. Herein, we established a phosphoric acid-catalyzed [4 + 2] cyclization reaction of 3-vinyl-1H-indoles and 2-vinylpyridines by means of the LUMO/HOMO bifunctional activation model. This protocol features mild reaction conditions, high functional group tolerance, broad substrate compatibility, and high diastereoselectivity, enabling the efficient construction of various functionalized pyridine-substituted tetrahydrocarbazoles with prominent potential in drug discovery.

DFT Study on the Mechanisms and Selectivities in Rh (III)-Catalyzed [5 + 1] Annulation of 2-Alkenylanilides and 2-Alkylphenols with Allenyl Acetates

The mechanisms and regio-, chemo-, and stereoselectivity were theoretically investigated in the Rh(III)-catalyzed [5 + 1] annulation of 2-alkenylanilides and 2-alkylphenols with allenyl acetates. Two different reactants, 2-alkenylanilides and 2-alkylphenols, were selected as model systems in the density functional theory calculations. The obtained theoretical results show that both these reactants exhibit similar steps, namely, (1) N-H/O-H deprotonation and C-H activation, (2) allenyl acetate migratory insertion, (3) β-oxygen elimination, (4) intramolecular nucleophilic addition of the nitrogen/oxygen-rhodium bond resulting in [5 + 1]-annulation, and (5) protonation with the formation of the desired product and regeneration of the Rh(III) catalyst. The theoretical evidence suggests that the selectivity is determined at the step of allenyl acetate's migratory insertion. Moreover, the regioselectivity is driven by electronic effects, while the interaction energies (C-H···π and C-H···O interactions) play a more imperative role in controlling the stereoselectivity. The obtained theoretical results not only well rationalize the experimental observations but also provide important mechanistic insights for related types of [5 + 1]-annulation reactions.

Synthesis of Azonia Aromatic Heterocycles Bearing 6-6-6-5-6 Pentacyclic Core via Intramolecular [4 + 2]-Cycloaddition and Oxidative Aromatization Reaction Sequence in One Pot

Cationic aza-heterocycle-fused compounds have gained wide applications in materials science, biological applications, and synthetic organic chemistry. In this report, synthesis of benzothiazolochromenopyridinium tetrafluoroborates, a novel molecular scaffold, bearing 6-6-6-5-6 pentacyclic core is described that proceeds via (i) piperidine-catalyzed Knoevenagel condensation between 2-propargyloxyarylaldehydes bearing internal alkynes and 2-benzothiazoleacetonitrile, (ii) intramolecular formal [4 + 2]-cycloaddition, and (iii) crucial molecular oxygen-mediated oxidative aromatization reaction sequence in one pot. These quaternary pyridinium salts are obtained at ambient temperature in good to high yields.

Selective Reductive Coupling of Vinyl Azaarenes and Alkynes via Photoredox Cobalt Dual Catalysis

A visible light-induced Co-catalyzed highly regio- and stereoselective reductive coupling of vinyl azaarenes and alkynes has been developed. Notably, Hünig's base together with simple ethanol has been successfully applied as the hydrogen sources instead of commonly used Hantzsch esters in this catalytic photoredox reaction. This approach has considerable advantages for the straightforward synthesis of stereodefined multiple substituted alkenes bearing an azaarene motif, such as excellent regioselectivity (>20 : 1 for >30 examples) and stereoselectivity (>20 : 1 E/Z), broad substrate scope and good functional group compatibility under mild reaction conditions, which has been utilized in the concise synthesis of natural product monomorine I. A reasonable catalytic reaction pathway involving protolysis of the cobaltacyclopentene intermediate has been proposed based on the mechanistic studies.

Fluorogenic Protein Labeling by Generation of Fluorescent Quinoliziniums Using [Cp*RhCl2]2

Fluorogenic labeling has received considerable attention as a result of the high demand in chemical biology and synthetic biology applications. Herein, we develop a new strategy for fluorescent turn-on ligation targeting alkyne- and quinoline-linked peptides and proteins (λ_em of 515 nm and up to Φ_F of 0.20) using the [Cp*RhCl₂]₂ catalyst. The good conversion, high flexibility, broad utility, ease of use, and mild reaction conditions are great advantages to extend the rhodium-mediated turn-on fluorogenic bioconjugation for further applications.

Transition-metal-catalyzed reactions involving reductive elimination between dative ligands and covalent ligands

This review summarizes transition-metal catalyzed reactions with reductive elimination between covalent ligands and dative ligands as the key elementary step.

Reaching Green: Heterocycle Synthesis by Transition Metal-Catalyzed C-H Functionalization in Sustainable Medium

Catalytic C-H functionalization has emerged as an efficient alternative to traditional coupling reactions. However, some of these reactions depend on environmentally harmful solvents, weakening the overall green nature of these methods. As organic processes consume large amount of solvents, the use of less harmful solvents enhance the sustainability of these reactions. Herein, we present an overview of transition metal-catalyzed C-H functionalization reactions for the synthesis of heterocycles in sustainable solvents based on CHEM21 solvent selection guide.

Facile and practical synthesis of β-carbolinium salts and γ-carbolinium salts via rhodium-catalyzed three-component reactions

A facile and practical [Cp*RhCl2]2-catalyzed three-component reaction between indolyl aldehydes, amines and alkynes involving C-H activation and cyclization has been developed. A series of β-carbolinium salts and γ-carbolinium salts are successfully afforded in good to quantitative yields under mild conditions. This efficient and convergent strategy provides a good choice for constructing the libraries of β-carbolinium salts and γ-carbolinium salts.

Side-chain alkylation of toluene with methanol to produce styrene: an overview

Styrene is a key building-block chemical for the production of polymers with significant application value.

3d Transition Metals for C-H Activation

C-H activation has surfaced as an increasingly powerful tool for molecular sciences, with notable applications to material sciences, crop protection, drug discovery, and pharmaceutical industries, among others. Despite major advances, the vast majority of these C-H functionalizations required precious 4d or 5d transition metal catalysts. Given the cost-effective and sustainable nature of earth-abundant first row transition metals, the development of less toxic, inexpensive 3d metal catalysts for C-H activation has gained considerable recent momentum as a significantly more environmentally-benign and economically-attractive alternative. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview on first row transition metal catalysts for C-H activation until summer 2018.

Rh(iii)-catalyzed synthesis of tetracyclic isoquinolinium salts via C–H activation and [4+2] annulation of 1-phenyl-3,4-dihydroisoquinolines and alkynes in ethanol

An efficient and convenient method to construct tetracyclic isoquinolinium salts via [Cp*RhCl₂]₂ catalyzed C–H activation and [4 + 2] annulation reactions in ethanol is described. This reaction is very fast and highly efficient in the green solvent ethanol. The reaction works with a broad substrate scope affording the products in good to excellent yields in a short time. Moreover, a ratio of S/C up to 10 000 could be achieved with gram scale synthesis.

An efficient method to construct tetracyclic isoquinolinium salts via C–H activation and [4 + 2] annulation reactions in ethanol is described.

Synthesis of 3-(2-Olefinbenzyl)-4H-chromen-4-one through Cyclobenzylation and Catalytic C-H Bond Functionalization Using Palladium(II)

An efficient strategy for synthesizing 3-(2-olefinbenzyl)-4H-chromen-4-one in two steps was developed. The first step is a cyclobenzylation reaction between (E)-3-(dimethylamino)-1-(2-hydroxyphenyl)prop-2-en-1-one and benzyl bromide to produce homoisoflavonoid. The second step involves intermolecular Pd-catalyzed π-chelating-assisted C-H bond olefination. Using the C-2/C-3 double bond of chromone, palladium-catalyzed aryl C-H bond activation can be functionalized to generate ortho-olefination derivatives in moderate to high yields.

Photosensitizer-free visible light-mediated gold-catalysed cis-difunctionalization of silyl-substituted alkynes

A new photosensitizer-free visible light-mediated gold-catalysed cis-difunctionalization reaction is developed.

A new photosensitizer-free visible light-mediated gold-catalysed cis-difunctionalization reaction is developed. The reaction was chemoselective towards silyl-substituted alkynes with excellent regioselectivity and good functional group compatibility, giving a series of silyl-substituted quinolizinium derivatives as products. The newly synthesized fluorescent quinolizinium compounds, named JR-Fluor-1, possessed tunable emission properties and large Stokes shifts. With unique photophysical properties, the fluorophores have been applied in photooxidative amidations as efficient photocatalysts and cellular imaging with switchable subcellular localization properties.

Synthesis of Benzoquinolizinium Salts by Rh(III)-Catalyzed Cascade Double N-Annulation Reactions of Allylamines, Diarylacetylenes, and HBF4

A new cascade double N-annulation method has been developed for the synthesis of benzoquinolizinium salts. The process takes place between allylamines, internal alkynes, and HBF₄ in the presence of Rh(III)/Cu(II) complexes and leads to formation of multisubstituted benzoquinolizinium salts. Importantly, the resulting benzoquinolizinium salts serve as fluorescent materials whose emission wavelengths can be tuned by selection of appropriate substituents.

Expedient synthesis of new cinnoline diones by Ru-catalyzed regioselective unexpected deoxygenation-oxidative annulation of propargyl alcohols with phthalazinones and pyridazinones

Ruthenium-catalyzed simple, cascade and one-pot synthesis of cinnoline-fused diones has been carried out by the C–H activation of phthalazinones/pyridazinones.

A concise synthesis of quinolinium, and biquinolinium salts and biquinolines from benzylic azides and alkenes promoted by copper(ii) species

​A copper promoted multiple aza-[4 + 2] cycloaddition reactions between benzylic azides and alkenes to form four different products including quinolinium and biquinolinium cations, biquinolines and quinolines are described.

Direct Synthesis of Protoberberine Alkaloids by Rh-Catalyzed C-H Bond Activation as the Key Step

A one-pot reaction of substituted benzaldehydes with alkyne-amines by a Rh-catalyzed C-H activation and annulation to afford various natural and unnatural protoberberine alkaloids is reported. This reaction provides a convenient route for the generation of a compound library of protoberberine salts, which recently have attracted great attention because of their diverse biological activities. In addition, pyridinium salt derivatives can also be formed in good yields from α,β-unsaturated aldehydes and amino-alkynes. This reaction proceeds with excellent regioselectivity and good functional group compatibility under mild reaction conditions by using O2 as the oxidant.

Mechanistic Understanding of the Divergent Reactivity of Cyclopropenes in Rh(III)-Catalyzed C-H Activation/Cycloaddition Reactions of N-Phenoxyacetamide and N-Pivaloxybenzamide

Density functional theory calculations were conducted to develop a mechanistic understanding of the Rh(III)-catalyzed C-H activation/cycloaddition reactions of N-phenoxyacetamide and N-pivaloxybenzamide with cyclopropenes, and insights into the substrate-dependent chemoselectivity were provided. The results showed that the divergence originated from the different reactivity of the seven-membered rhodacycles from the insertion of cyclopropene into the Rh-C bond. In reactions of N-pivaloxybenzamide, such an intermediate undergoes the pivalate migration to form a cyclic Rh(V)-nitrenoid intermediate in a reaction that is easier than the opening of the three-membered ring by β-carbon elimination, leading finally to a tricyclic product with retention of the cyclopropane moiety by facile reductive elimination. While similar Rh(V)-nitrenoid species could also be possibly formed in Cp*Rh(III)-catalyzed reactions of N-phenoxyacetamide, the β-carbon elimination occurs more easily from the corresponding seven-membered rhodacycle intermediate and the subsequent O-N bond cleavage gives rise to an unexpected dearomatized (E)-6-alkenylcyclohexa-2,4-dienone intermediate. The E/Z isomerization of this intermediate is required for the final cyclization to 2H-chromene, and interesting metal-ligand cooperative catalysis with Rh(III) carboxylate was disclosed in the C═C double bond rotation process.

Rh(III)-catalyzed oxidative annulation of 2-phenylimidazo[1,2-a]pyridines with alkynes: mono versus double C-H activation

Rh(III)-catalyzed C-H activation of 2-phenylimidazo[1,2-a]pyridines in divergent oxidative coupling with alkynes has been achieved. Selective mono versus 2-fold C-H activation has been attained under condition control. When AgOAc was used as an oxidant, the coupling afforded 5,6-disubstituted naphtho[1',2':4,5]imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines as a result of initial nitrogen chelation-assisted C-H activation at the benzene ring followed by rollover C-H activation. In contrast, the reaction afforded a fused isoquinolinium salt as a result of C-C and C-N coupling when AgBF4 was employed as a co-oxidant. A rhodacyclic intermediate has been isolated.

Rhodium-catalyzed C-H functionalization-based approach to eight-membered lactams

A Rh(iii) catalyzed formal [4 + 2 + 2] cyclization of N-pivaloyloxybenzamides 1 with 1,6-allene-enes 2 by C-H functionalization is reported. The reactions occur at room temperature and are compatible with air and moisture with a tolerance of many synthetically useful functional groups. The follow-up modifications of the products have been demonstrated. After careful mechanistic studies and DFT calculation, a reaction mechanism was proposed.