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Clegg W, Nichol GS. The Sensitivity of Structure to Ionic Radius and Reaction Stoichiometry: A Crystallographic Study of Metal Coordination and Hydrogen Bonding in Barbiturate Complexes of All Five Alkali Metals Li-Cs. Molecules 2024; 29:1495. [PMID: 38611775 PMCID: PMC11012986 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29071495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 03/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
A systematic study has been conducted on barbiturate complexes of all five alkali metals, Li-Cs, prepared from metal carbonates or hydroxides in an aqueous solution without other potential ligands present, varying the stoichiometric ratio of metal ion to barbituric acid (BAH). Eight polymeric coordination compounds (two each for Na, K, and Rb and one each for Li and Cs) have been characterised by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. All contain some combination of barbiturate anion BA- (necessarily in a 1:1 ratio with the metal cation M+), barbituric acid, and water. All organic species and water molecules are coordinated to the metal centres via oxygen atoms as either terminal or bridging ligands. Coordination numbers range from 4 (for the Li complex) to 8 (for the Cs complex). Extensive hydrogen bonding plays a significant role in all the crystal structures, almost all of which include pairs of N-H···O hydrogen bonds linking BA- and/or BAH components into ribbons extending in one dimension. Factors influencing the structure adopted by each compound include cation size and reaction stoichiometry as well as hydrogen bonding.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Clegg
- Chemistry, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK;
| | - Gary S. Nichol
- Chemistry, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK;
- School of Chemistry, Joseph Black Building, University of Edinburgh, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, UK
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2
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Zwitterionic or Not? Fast and Reliable Structure Determination by Combining Crystal Structure Prediction and Solid-State NMR. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041876. [PMID: 36838863 PMCID: PMC9966216 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
When it comes to crystal structure determination, computational approaches such as Crystal Structure Prediction (CSP) have gained more and more attention since they offer some insight on how atoms and molecules are packed in the solid state, starting from only very basic information without diffraction data. Furthermore, it is well known that the coupling of CSP with solid-state NMR (SSNMR) greatly enhances the performance and the accuracy of the predictive method, leading to the so-called CSP-NMR crystallography (CSP-NMRX). In this paper, we present the successful application of CSP-NMRX to determine the crystal structure of three structural isomers of pyridine dicarboxylic acid, namely quinolinic, dipicolinic and dinicotinic acids, which can be in a zwitterionic form, or not, in the solid state. In a first step, mono- and bidimensional SSNMR spectra, i.e., 1H Magic-Angle Spinning (MAS), 13C and 15N Cross Polarisation Magic-Angle Spinning (CPMAS), 1H Double Quantum (DQ) MAS, 1H-13C HETeronuclear CORrelation (HETCOR), were used to determine the correct molecular structure (i.e., zwitterionic or not) and the local molecular arrangement; at the end, the RMSEs between experimental and computed 1H and 13C chemical shifts allowed the selection of the correct predicted structure for each system. Interestingly, while quinolinic and dipicolinic acids are zwitterionic and non-zwitterionic, respectively, in the solid state, dinicotinic acid exhibits in its crystal structure a "zwitterionic-non-zwitterionic continuum state" in which the proton is shared between the carboxylic moiety and the pyridinic nitrogen. Very refined SSNMR experiments were carried out, i.e., 14N-1H Phase-Modulated (PM) pulse and Rotational-Echo Saturation-Pulse Double-Resonance (RESPDOR), to provide an accurate N-H distance value confirming the hybrid nature of the molecule. The CSP-NMRX method showed a remarkable match between the selected structures and the experimental ones. The correct molecular input provided by SSNMR reduced the number of CSP calculations to be performed, leading to different predicted structures, while RMSEs provided an independent parameter with respect to the computed energy for the selection of the best candidate.
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3
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Pharmaceutical cocrystal of antibiotic drugs: A comprehensive review. Heliyon 2022; 8:e11872. [DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2022] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
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4
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Single crystal inspection, Hirshfeld surface investigation and DFT study of a novel derivative of 4-fluoroaniline: 4-((4-fluorophenyl)amino)-4-oxobutanoic acid (BFAOB). JOURNAL OF THE IRANIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s13738-021-02432-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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5
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Bravetti F, Bordignon S, Alig E, Eisenbeil D, Fink L, Nervi C, Gobetto R, Schmidt MU, Chierotti MR. Solid-State NMR-Driven Crystal Structure Prediction of Molecular Crystals: The Case of Mebendazole. Chemistry 2021; 28:e202103589. [PMID: 34962330 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202103589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Among all possible NMR crystallography approaches for crystal-structure determination, crystal structure prediction - NMR crystallography (CSP-NMRX) has recently turned out to be a powerful method. In the latter, the original procedure exploited solid-state NMR (SSNMR) information during the final steps of the prediction. In particular, it used the comparison of computed and experimental chemical shifts for the selection of the correct crystal packing. Still, the prediction procedure, generally carried out with DFT methods, may require important computational resources and be quite time-consuming, especially if there are no available constraints to use at the initial stage. Herein, the successful application of this combined prediction method, which exploits NMR information also in the input step to reduce the search space of the predictive algorithm, is presented. Herein, this method was applied on mebendazole, which is characterized by desmotropism. The use of SSNMR data as constraints for the selection of the right tautomer and the determination of the number of independent molecules in the unit cell led to a considerably faster process, reducing the number of calculations to be performed. In this way, the crystal packing was successfully predicted for the three known phases of mebendazole. To evaluate the quality of the predicted structures, these were compared to the experimental ones. The crystal structure of phase B of mebendazole, in particular, was determined de novo by powder diffraction and is presented for the first time in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Bravetti
- Department of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Torino, via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125, Torino, Italy
| | - Simone Bordignon
- Department of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Torino, via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125, Torino, Italy
| | - Edith Alig
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Strasse 7, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Daniel Eisenbeil
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Strasse 7, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Lothar Fink
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Strasse 7, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Carlo Nervi
- Department of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Torino, via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125, Torino, Italy
| | - Roberto Gobetto
- Department of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Torino, via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125, Torino, Italy
| | - Martin U Schmidt
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Strasse 7, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Michele R Chierotti
- Department of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Torino, via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125, Torino, Italy
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6
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Yelgaonkar SP, Kiani D, Baltrusaitis J, MacGillivray LR. Superstructural diversity in salt-cocrystals: higher-order hydrogen-bonded assemblies formed using U-shaped dications and with assistance of π --π stacking. Chem Commun (Camb) 2020; 56:6708-6710. [PMID: 32420555 DOI: 10.1039/d0cc02671a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Salt cocrystals with components that assemble by hydrogen bonds and aromatic anion-molecule stacks (π--π stacks) are reported. U-shaped bipyridines and an isocoumarin carboxylic acid self-assemble to form 5-, 6-, and 10-component aggregates with components in double and quadruple face-to-face stacks. DFT calculations support the π--π stacks to help stabilize the salt cocrystals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniyal Kiani
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University, B336 Iacocca Hall, 111 Research Drive, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, USA
| | - Jonas Baltrusaitis
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Lehigh University, B336 Iacocca Hall, 111 Research Drive, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, USA
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7
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Golovnev NN, Molokeev MS, Sterkhova IV, Lesnikov MK. Structure of Barbituratobis(2,2'-Dipyridyl)copper(II) Heptahydrate. RUSS J COORD CHEM+ 2019. [DOI: 10.1134/s1070328419080037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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8
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Ivanova B, Spiteller M. Noncentrosymmetric organic crystals of barbiturates as potential nonlinear optical phores: experimental and theoretical analyses. CHEMICAL PAPERS 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11696-019-00835-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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9
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Sedghiniya S, Soleimannejad J, Janczak J. The salt–cocrystal spectrum in salicylic acid–adenine: the influence of crystal structure on proton-transfer balance. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION C-STRUCTURAL CHEMISTRY 2019; 75:412-421. [DOI: 10.1107/s2053229619003127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
At one extreme of the proton-transfer spectrum in cocrystals, proton transfer is absent, whilst at the opposite extreme, in salts, the proton-transfer process is complete. However, for acid–base pairs with a small ΔpK
a (pK
a of base − pK
a of acid), prediction of the extent of proton transfer is not possible as there is a continuum between the salt and cocrystal ends. In this context, we attempt to illustrate that in these systems, in addition to ΔpK
a, the crystalline environment could change the extent of proton transfer. To this end, two compounds of salicylic acid (SaH) and adenine (Ad) have been prepared. Despite the same small ΔpK
a value (≈1.2), different ionization states are found. Both crystals, namely adeninium salicylate monohydrate, C5H6N5
+·C7H5O3
−·H2O, I, and adeninium salicylate–adenine–salicylic acid–water (1/2/1/2), C5H6N5
+·C7H5O3
−·2C5H5N5·C7H6O3·2H2O, II, have been characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction, IR spectroscopy and elemental analysis (C, H and N) techniques. In addition, the intermolecular hydrogen-bonding interactions of compounds I and II have been investigated and quantified in detail on the basis of Hirshfeld surface analysis and fingerprint plots. Throughout the study, we use crystal engineering, which is based on modifications of the intermolecular interactions, thus offering a more comprehensive screening of the salt–cocrystal continuum in comparison with pure pK
a analysis.
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10
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Crystallographic, thermal and spectroscopic characterization of the anhydrous thiourea−barbituric acid and thiourea−2-thiobarbituric acid co-crystals. J Mol Struct 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2018.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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11
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Golovnev NN, Molokeev MS, Sterkhova IV, Lesnikov MK. Crystal structures of [Cu2(2,2′-bipyridine-N,N′)2(H2O)2(μ2-OH)2](barbiturate)2·2H2O and [Cu(2,2′-bipyridine-N,N′)(H2O)(barbiturate-O)Cl]·2H2O. INORG CHEM COMMUN 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.inoche.2018.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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12
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Golovnev NN, Molokeev MS, Lesnikov MK. Structure of Potassium and Cesium Barbiturates. RUSS J INORG CHEM+ 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s0036023618100078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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13
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Tan D, Loots L, Friščić T. Towards medicinal mechanochemistry: evolution of milling from pharmaceutical solid form screening to the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 52:7760-81. [PMID: 27185190 DOI: 10.1039/c6cc02015a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This overview highlights the emergent area of mechanochemical reactions for making active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), and covers the latest advances in the recently established area of mechanochemical screening and synthesis of pharmaceutical solid forms, specifically polymorphs, cocrystals, salts and salt cocrystals. We also provide an overview of the most recent developments in pharmaceutical uses of mechanochemistry, including real-time reaction monitoring, techniques for polymorph control and approaches for continuous manufacture using twin screw extrusion, and more. Most importantly, we show how the overlap of previously unrelated areas of mechanochemical screening for API solid forms, organic synthesis by milling, and mechanochemical screening for molecular recognition, enables the emergence of a new research discipline in which different aspects of pharmaceutical and medicinal chemistry are addressed through mechanochemistry rather than through conventional solution-based routes. The emergence of such medicinal mechanochemistry is likely to have a strong impact on future pharmaceutical and medicinal chemistry, as it offers not only access to materials and reactivity that are sometimes difficult or even impossible to access from solution, but can also provide a general answer to the demands of the pharmaceutical industry for cleaner, safer and efficient synthetic solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davin Tan
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W, H3A 0B8 Montreal, Canada.
| | - Leigh Loots
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W, H3A 0B8 Montreal, Canada.
| | - Tomislav Friščić
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W, H3A 0B8 Montreal, Canada.
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14
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Thiobarbiturate and barbiturate salts of pefloxacin drug: Growth, structure, thermal stability and IR-spectra. J Mol Struct 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2017.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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15
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Golovnev NN, Molokeev MS, Lesnikov MK, Atuchin VV. Two salts and the salt cocrystal of ciprofloxacin with thiobarbituric and barbituric acids: The structure and properties. J PHYS ORG CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/poc.3773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Maxim S. Molokeev
- Siberian Federal University; Krasnoyarsk Russia
- Laboratory of Crystal Physics; Kirensky Institute of Physics, Federal Research Center KSC SB RAS; Krasnoyarsk Russia
- Department of Physics; Far Eastern State Transport University; Khabarovsk Russia
| | | | - Victor V. Atuchin
- Laboratory of Optical Materials and Structures; Institute of Semiconductor Physics SB RAS; Novosibirsk Russia
- Laboratory of Semiconductor and Dielectric Materials; Novosibirsk State University; Novosibirsk Russia
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16
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Golovnev NN, Molokeev MS, Lesnikov MK, Vereshchagin SN. Polymeric lithium(I) diaquabarbiturate: Crystal structure. RUSS J INORG CHEM+ 2017. [DOI: 10.1134/s0036023617060092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Golovnev NN, Molokeev MS, Sterkhova IV, Golovneva II. Structure of ionic cocrystals piperidinium 2-thiobarbiturate–2-thiobarbituric acid. J STRUCT CHEM+ 2017. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022476616060287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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18
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Muresan-Pop M, Braga D, Pop MM, Borodi G, Kacso I, Maini L. Crystal structure and physicochemical characterization of ambazone monohydrate, anhydrous, and acetate salt solvate. J Pharm Sci 2014; 103:3594-3601. [PMID: 25187325 DOI: 10.1002/jps.24151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The crystal structures of the monohydrate and anhydrous forms of ambazone were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SC-XRD). Ambazone monohydrate is characterized by an infinite three-dimensional network involving the water molecules, whereas anhydrous ambazone forms a two-dimensional network via hydrogen bonds. The reversible transformation between the monohydrate and anhydrous forms of ambazone was evidenced by thermal analysis, temperature-dependent X-ray powder diffraction and accelerated stability at elevated temperature, and relative humidity (RH). Additionally, a novel ambazone acetate salt solvate form was obtained and its nature was elucidated by SC-XRD. Powder dissolution measurements revealed a substantial solubility and dissolution rate improvement of acetate salt solvated form in water and physiological media compared with ambazone forms. Also, the acetate salt solvate displayed good thermal and solution stability but it transformed to the monohydrate on storage at elevated temperature and RH. Our study shows that despite the requirement for controlled storage conditions, the acetate salt solvated form could be an alternative to ambazone when solubility and bioavailability improvement is critical for the clinical efficacy of the drug product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieta Muresan-Pop
- National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, Cluj-Napoca R-400293, Romania
| | - Dario Braga
- Dipartimento di Chimica G. Ciamician, Università di Bologna 40 126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Mihaela M Pop
- National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, Cluj-Napoca R-400293, Romania
| | - Gheorghe Borodi
- National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, Cluj-Napoca R-400293, Romania
| | - Irina Kacso
- National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, Cluj-Napoca R-400293, Romania
| | - Lucia Maini
- Dipartimento di Chimica G. Ciamician, Università di Bologna 40 126, Bologna, Italy.
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19
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20
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Gaglioti K, Chierotti MR, Grifasi F, Gobetto R, Griesser UJ, Hasa D, Voinovich D. Improvement of the water solubility of tolfenamic acid by new multiple-component crystals produced by mechanochemical methods. CrystEngComm 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ce00549j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Tolfenamic acid (HTA) is a drug characterized by very poor solubility in water. By mechanochemical methods, new solid-state forms of HTA were obtained, showing better thermal stability than pure HTA and an improved dissolution rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Gaglioti
- Dip. di chimica
- Fisica d dei materiali
- Via P. Giuria
- Torino
- Italy
| | - M. R. Chierotti
- Dip. di chimica
- Fisica d dei materiali
- Via P. Giuria
- Torino
- Italy
| | - F. Grifasi
- Dip. di chimica
- Fisica d dei materiali
- Via P. Giuria
- Torino
- Italy
| | - R. Gobetto
- Dip. di chimica
- Fisica d dei materiali
- Via P. Giuria
- Torino
- Italy
| | - U. J. Griesser
- Institute of Pharmacy
- Pharmaceutical Technology
- University of Innsbruck
- Josef-Moeller-Haus Innrain 52c
- Innsbruck, Austria
| | - D. Hasa
- Dept. of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences
- University of Trieste
- Trieste, Italy
| | - D. Voinovich
- Dept. of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences
- University of Trieste
- Trieste, Italy
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21
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Smith AJ, Kim SH, Duggirala NK, Jin J, Wojtas L, Ehrhart J, Giunta B, Tan J, Zaworotko MJ, Shytle RD. Improving lithium therapeutics by crystal engineering of novel ionic cocrystals. Mol Pharm 2013; 10:4728-38. [PMID: 24191685 PMCID: PMC3850245 DOI: 10.1021/mp400571a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Current United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved lithium salts are plagued with a narrow therapeutic window. Recent attempts to find alternative drugs have identified new chemical entities, but lithium's polypharmacological mechanisms for treating neuropsychiatric disorders are highly debated and are not yet matched. Thus, re-engineering current lithium solid forms in order to optimize performance represents a low cost and low risk approach to the desired therapeutic outcome. In this contribution, we employed a crystal engineering strategy to synthesize the first ionic cocrystals (ICCs) of lithium salts with organic anions. We are unaware of any previous studies that have assessed the biological efficacy of any ICCs, and encouragingly we found that the new speciation did not negatively affect established bioactivities of lithium. We also observed that lithium ICCs exhibit modulated pharmacokinetics compared to lithium carbonate. Indeed, the studies detailed herein represent an important advancement in a crystal engineering approach to a new generation of lithium therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Smith
- Center of Excellence for Aging and Brain Repair, Department of Neurosurgery and Brain Repair, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida , Tampa, Florida 33612, United States
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