A one-step extraction/clean-up method for determination of PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs in environmental solid matrices

Dynamic modeling of the occurrence, sources, and environmental behavior of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Zhelin Bay, China

This study analyzed polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in Zhelin Bay, China, investigating their occurrence, sources, and environmental behavior. PBDE congeners were detected in all sampled media. The Σ13PBDE concentrations in the dissolved phase ranged from 1.04 to 41.40 ng/L, while the concentrations ranged in suspended particulate matter from 0.02 to 12.56 ng/L. In sediments, PBDE concentrations ranged from 1.41 to 8.57 ng/g. The higher proportion of PBDEs in the dissolved phase in the bay than in the estuary is attributable to the type of PBDE products used in the aquacultural process in Zhelin Bay. Moreover, correlation analysis between PBDE concentrations and environmental parameters showed that the primary factor influencing PBDE concentrations in Zhelin Bay sediments may shift from riverine inputs to aquaculture. Principal component analysis and positive matrix factorization revealed that PBDEs in the water of Zhelin Bay primarily originated from the degradation of octa-BDE, deca-BDE, and penta-BDE products employed in aquaculture. In contrast, the PBDEs in Zhelin Bay sediments mainly originated from riverine inputs. In addition, a level IV dynamic fugacity-based multimedia model was used to simulate the temporal variation of PBDE concentrations in Zhelin Bay. Modeled short-term trends showed a relatively swift transport of PBDE congeners in the water column to the atmosphere and sediments. Over the long term, sediment concentrations gradually decreased, in contrast to the less rapid declines observed in the atmosphere and water. Furthermore, this study revealed that the transport and transformation processes of PBDEs in the Zhelin Bay environment were considerably influenced by the diffusion coefficient in water, the water-side mass transfer coefficient at the water-sediment interface, the sediment resuspension rate, and the organic carbon-water partition coefficient.

Spatial distribution, source, and ecological risk of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) in Jiaozhou Bay, China

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) are commonly found in the environment as components of brominated flame retardants. Due to their potential impact on human health and wildlife, it is imperative to closely monitor and manage their levels in the environment. This study investigated the spatial distribution, sources, and ecological risks of PBDEs and HBCDs in Jiaozhou Bay (JZB), a large bay situated on the eastern coast of China. The results showed that PBDE concentrations ranged from not detected (ND) to 7.93 ng/L in the water and ND to 65.76 ng/g in the sediment, while HBCD concentrations ranged from ND to 0.31 ng/L in the water and ND to 16.63 ng/g in the sediment. Furthermore, we observed significantly higher concentrations of PBDEs and HBCDs in the inner JZB compared to the outer JZB. Our source apportionment analysis showed that PBDEs primarily originated from the production and debromination of BDE-209, as well as the emission of commercial PeBDEs, whereas HBCDs in sediments mostly stemmed from anthropogenic activities and river input. Finally, our eco-logical risk assessment highlighted the need for continuous monitoring of PBDEs in JZB sediments. Overall, our study aims to provide valuable assistance for the environmental management of the JZB bay area, which is characterized by a complex net-work of rivers and a thriving economy.

Atmospheric concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls, brominated flame retardants, and novel flame retardants in Lagos, Nigeria indicate substantial local sources

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs) like polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), and novel flame retardants (NFRs) like decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants. Despite this, little is known about their concentrations in outdoor air in the African continent. To address this knowledge gap, concentrations of BFRs, NFRs, and PCBs were measured in outdoor air at 8 sites located within the metropolitan area of Lagos, Nigeria. Concentrations of ∑₈BDEs, ∑HBCDD, ∑₇NFRs and ∑₈PCBs were: 21-750 (median = 100) pg/m³, <12-180 (median = < 12) pg/m³, 34-900 (median = 300) pg/m³ and 85-460 (median = 300) pg/m³, respectively. Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209, range: <16-620 pg/m³, median = 71 pg/m³) and DBDPE (range: <37-890 pg/m³, median = 280 pg/m³) were the dominant BFRs detected, while the non-Arochlor PCB 11 (range: 49-220 pg/m³, median = 100 pg/m³) was the dominant PCB. To the authors' knowledge, these are the first data on the non-Arochlor PCB 11 in outdoor air in Africa. In general, concentrations of all target contaminants in this study were within the range reported elsewhere in Africa and worldwide. Likely due to the tropical climate of Lagos, no seasonal variation in concentrations was discernible for any of the target contaminants. While concentrations of PBDEs and some NFRs were correlated with population density, concentrations of PCBs appear more impacted by leaks from electrical transformers and for PCB 11 to proximity to activities like textile factories that produce and use dyes.

Determination of brominated flame retardants including polybrominated diphenyl ethers, pentabromoethylbenzene, hexabromobiphenyl, and decabromodiphenyl ethane in sediment samples: Validation of a rapid and efficient clean-up method and application to a sediment core from Lake Biwa, Japan

The development of rapid and efficient analytical method for the determination of legacy and current-use brominated flame retardants (BFRs) has been performed due to environmental concern related to these pollutants. In the present study, we used an automated clean-up device equipped with pre-packed micro-column sets (containing sulfuric acid impregnated silica gel and silver-modified alumina) to develop an effective purification method for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), pentabromoethylbenzene, hexabromobiphenyl, and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) in sediment extracts. Matrix-spiked sediments (n = 6) and the Standard Reference Material® 1944 samples (n = 6) were tested. Our method showed acceptable accuracy, repeatability, and sensitivity for almost all the target compounds with reduced processing time, labor requirement, and solvent amounts as compared to conventional clean-up method (e.g., sulfuric acid treatment and self-packed chromatographic columns). The validated method was applied to sediment core samples (n = 16) collected in 2019 from Lake Biwa, the largest lake in Japan. PBDEs were detected in sediment samples of 0-13 cm depth (dated between 1990 and 2019) at relatively low concentrations (median 5.7; range 2.6-9.4 ng/g dry weight). PBDE profiles were dominated by BDE-209, which accounted for 91 ± 10% of total PBDEs. Among other BFRs, only DBDPE was found in sediment layers of 0-9 cm depth (deposited between 2005 and 2019). DBDPE concentrations ranged from 0.43 to 1.6 (median 0.71) ng/g and showed increasing trend toward shallower depths.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the environment: a wake-up call for concerted action in India

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are a class of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) used as flame retardants in the products utilized in day-to-day life. Their bioaccumulation, low volatility, and high persistence in the environment have led to their global spread even to remote and distant regions. The present study identifies gaps in the investigation of the neurotoxic potential of PBDEs, their effects on brain development, toxicokinetic, and their potential as a carcinogen. In India, to date, only human breast milk was assessed for levels of PBDEs, and it is suggested that other human tissues can also be explored. No data on the reproductive toxicity of PBDEs are reported from Indian cohorts. Long-range transport and deposition of PBDEs in colder regions necessitates monitoring of Himalayan regions in India. An inventory of PBDEs is required to be made for addressing the worrisome situation of the unregulated import of E-waste from the developed countries in India. The study also emphasizes providing guidelines for the articulation of policies regarding sound surveillance and management of PBDE production, consumption, and release in the Indian context. It is recommended that a separate cell for monitoring and follow-up of PBDEs should be established in India. Also, the development of better alternatives and environment-friendly remediation technologies for PBDEs is the need of the hour.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the environmental systems: a review

PBDEs are human-influenced chemicals utilized massively as flame retardants. They are environmentally persistent, not easily degraded, bioaccumulate in the biological tissue of organisms, and bio-magnify across the food web. They can travel over a long distance, with air and water being their possible transport media. They can be transferred to non-target organisms by inhalation, oral ingestion, breastfeeding, or dermal contact. These pollutants adsorb easily to solid matrices due to their lipophilicity and hydrophobicity; thus, sediments from rivers, lakes, estuaries, and ocean are becoming their major reservoirs aquatic environments. They have low acute toxicity, but the effects of interfering with the thyroid hormone metabolism in the endocrine system are long term. Many congeners of PBDEs are considered to pose a danger to humans and the aquatic environment. They have shown the possibility of causing many undesirable effects, together with neurologic, immunological, and reproductive disruptions and possible carcinogenicity in humans. PBDEs have been detected in small amounts in biological samples, including hair, human semen, blood, urine, and breastmilk, and environmental samples such as sediment, soil, sewage sludge, air, biota, fish, mussels, surface water, and wastewater. The congeners prevailing in environmental samples, with soil being the essential matrix, are BDE 47, 99, and 100. BDE 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, and 183 are more frequently detected in human tissues, whereas in sediment and soil, BDE 100 and 183 predominate. Generally, BDE 153 and 154 appear very often across different matrices. However, BDE 209 seems not frequently determined, owing to its tendency to quickly breakdown into smaller congeners. This paper carried out an overview of PBDEs in the environmental, human, and biota niches with their characteristics, physicochemical properties, and fate in the environment, human exposure, and health effects.

Validation of a Method Scope Extension for the Analysis of POPs in Soil and Verification in Organic and Conventional Farms of the Canary Islands

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are among the most relevant and dangerous contaminants in soil, from where they can be transferred to crops. Additionally, livestock animals may inadvertently consume relatively high amounts of soil attached to the roots of the vegetables while grazing, leading to indirect exposure to humans. Therefore, periodic monitoring of soils is crucial; thus, simple, robust, and powerful methods are needed. In this study, we have tested and validated an easy QuEChERS-based method for the extraction of 49 POPs (8 PBDEs, 12 OCPs, 11 PAHs, and 18 PCBs) in soils and their analysis by GC-MS/MS. The method was validated in terms of linearity, precision, and accuracy, and a matrix effect study was performed. The limits of detection (LOD) were established between 0.048 and 3.125 ng g⁻¹ and the limits of quantification (LOQ) were between 0.5 and 20 ng g⁻¹, except for naphthalene (50 ng g⁻¹). Then, to verify the applicability of the validated method, we applied it to a series of 81 soil samples from farms dedicated to mixed vegetable cultivation and vineyards in the Canary Islands, both from two modes of production (organic vs. conventional) where residues of OCPs, PCBs, and PAHs were found.

Legacy and novel flame retardants from indoor dust in Antarctica: Sources and human exposure

The air humidity in Antarctica is very low and this peculiar weather parameter make the use of flame retardants in research facilities highly needed for safety reasons, as fires are a major risk. Legacy and novel flame retardants (nFRs) including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), Dechlorane Plus (DP), and other nFRs were measured in indoor dust samples collected at research Stations in Antarctica: Gabriel de Castilla, Spain (GCS), Julio Escudero, Chile (JES), and onboard the RRS James Clark Ross, United Kingdom (RRS JCR). The GC-HRMS and LC-MS-MS analyses of dust samples revealed ∑₇PBDEs of 41.5 ± 43.8 ng/g in rooms at GCS, 18.7 ± 11.6 ng/g at JES, and 27.2 ± 37.9 ng/g onboard the RRS JCR. PBDE pattern was different between the sites and most abundant congeners were BDE-183 (40%) at GCS, BDE-99 (50%) at JES, and BDE-153 (37%) onboard the RRS JCR. The ∑₍₄₎HBCDs were 257 ± 407 ng/g, 14.9 ± 14.5 ng/g, and 761 ± 1043 ng/g in indoor dust collected in rooms at GCS, JES, and RRS JCR, respectively. The ∑₉nFRs were 224 ± 178 ng/g at GCS, 14.1 ± 13.8 ng/g at JES, and 194 ± 392 ng/g on the RRS JCR. Syn- and anti-DP were detected in most of the samples and both isomers showed the highest concentrations at GCS: 163 ± 93.6 and 48.5 ± 61.1 ng/g, respectively. The laboratory and living room showed the highest concentration of HBCDs, DPs, BTBPE. The wide variations in FR levels in dust from the three research facilities and between differently used rooms reflect the different origin of furnishing, building materials and equipment. The potential health risk associated to a daily exposure via dust ingestion was assessed for selected FRs: BDEs 47, 99, and 153, α-, β-, and γ-HBCD, BTBPE, syn- and anti-DP. Although the estimated exposures are below the available reference doses, caution is needed given the expected increasing use of novel chemicals without a comprehensive toxicological profile.

Polychlorinated Biphenyl Profile in Polyhydroxy-alkanoates Synthetized from Urban Organic Wastes

The microbial synthesis of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) from organic wastes is a valuable process to valorize available renewable resources, such as food wastes and biological sludge. Bioplastics find many applications in various sectors, from medical field to food industry. However, persistent organic pollutants could be transferred from wastes to the final product. The present paper demonstrates that the use of municipal wastes in PHA production is safe for the environment and human health and provides a polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) profile in both commercial and waste-based PHA samples. PCB analysis in several PHA samples showed very low concentrations of the target analytes. Commercial PHA samples showed a similar PCB level with respect to PHA samples from municipal waste/sludge and higher than PHA samples from fruit waste. For all analyzed PCBs, detected concentrations were consistently lower than the ones reported in regulatory framework or guidelines.

Distribution and diastereoisomeric profiles of hexabromocyclododecanes in air, water, soil, and sediment samples in South Korea: Application of an optimized analytical method

In this study, the levels and distribution patterns of HBCD diastereoisomers in air, water, soil, and sediment samples in South Korea were investigated after optimizing the UPLC-MS/MS analytical process. Extraction and cleanup efficiencies were tested using several different extraction solvents and adsorbents. Dichloromethane was selected as the base extraction solvent, and multi-layer silica gel (MSG) and MSG-alumina columns were selected for the removal of HBCDs from complex environmental matrices. The concentration of Ʃ₃ HBCDs was 22-133 pg/m³, 10-128 ng/g, 0.2-151 ng/L, and 0.5-552 ng/g dw for air, soil, water, and sediment samples, respectively. Relatively higher concentrations of Ʃ₃ HBCDs were observed at stations adjacent to industrial facilities (e.g., rubber and plastic, textile, chemical, fabricated metal, and wholesale trade factories) associated with the use of commercial HBCDs. The proportion of γ-HBCD in the soil (48.3-86.2%) and sediment (54.2-78.1%, except for one station) samples was similar to that found in technical and commercial HBCDs. In contrast, α-HBCD (52.3-71.2%) was dominant in all air samples, while the water samples displayed no clear trend in their diastereoisomer profiles. As the first nationwide report on HBCD diastereoisomers in the environment, this study demonstrates that most environmental compartments in South Korea are moderately contaminated with HBCDs.

Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls in soil and indoor dust associated with electricity generation facilities in Lagos, Nigeria

Concentrations of 7 indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in dust and soil samples from 12 power stations collected over the two major seasons of the Nigerian climate. Median ƩPCB₇ concentrations in soil ranged from 2 ng/g for power station A to 220 ng/g for power station I; while those in dust ranged from 21 ng/g for power station L to 2200 ng/g for power station I. For individual congeners, median PCB concentrations ranged from 3.8 ng/g for PCB 101 to 52 ng/g for PCB 180 in dust, and <0.07 ng/g for PCB 28 to 5.9 ng/g for PCB 153 in soil. The type of power station activity exerted a significant influence on concentrations of ΣPCB₇ in dust and soil (generation > transmission > distribution). Congener patterns in dust and soil samples were compared using principal component analysis (PCA) with those in transformer oil samples from 3 of the power stations studied and with common PCB mixtures (Aroclors). This revealed congener patterns in soil were more closely related to that in the transformer oil than dust. Congener patterns in most samples were similar to Aroclor 1260. Concentrations of PCBs in soil samples close to the transformers significantly exceeded those in soil sampled further away.

A review of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in the indoor environment: occurrence in consumer products, indoor air and dust

As many people spend a large part of their life indoors, the quality of the indoor environment is important. Data on contaminants such as flame retardants, pesticides and plasticizers are available for indoor air and dust but are scarce for consumer products such as computers, televisions, furniture, carpets, etc. This review presents information on semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in consumer products in an attempt to link the information available for chemicals in indoor air and dust with their indoor sources. A number of 256 papers were selected and divided among SVOCs found in consumer products (n = 57), indoor dust (n = 104) and air (n = 95). Concentrations of SVOCs in consumer products, indoor dust and air are reported (e.g. PFASs max: 13.9 μg/g in textiles, 5.8 μg/kg in building materials, 121 ng/g in house dust and 6.4 ng/m³ in indoor air). Most of the studies show common aims, such as human exposure and risk assessment. The main micro-environments investigated (houses, offices and schools) reflect the relevance of indoor air quality. Most of the studies show a lack of data on concentrations of chemicals in consumer goods and often only the presence of chemicals is reported. At the moment this is the largest obstacle linking chemicals in products to chemicals detected in indoor air and dust.

Critical review of soil contamination by polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs); concentrations, sources and congener profiles

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been used in a broad array of polymeric materials such as plastics, foams, resins and adhesives to inhibit the spread of fires since the 1970s. The widespread environmental contamination and well documented toxic effects of PBDEs have led to bans and voluntary withdrawals in many jurisdictions. Replacement novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) have, however, exhibited many of the same toxic characteristics as PBDEs and appear to share similar environmental fate. This paper presents a critical review of the scientific literature regarding PBDE and NBFR contamination of surface soils internationally, with the secondary objective of identifying probable pollution sources. An evaluation of NBFR distribution in soil was also conducted to assess the suitability of the newer compounds as replacements for PBDEs, with respect to their land contamination potential. Principle production of PBDEs and NBFRs and their consequent use in secondary polymer manufacture appear to be processes with strong potential to contaminate surrounding soils. Evidence suggests that PBDEs and NBFRs are also released from flame retarded products during disposal via landfill, dumping, incineration and recycling. While the land application of sewage sludge represents another major pathway of soil contamination it is not considered in this review as it is extensively covered elsewhere. Both PBDEs and NBFRs were commonly detected at background locations including Antarctica and northern polar regions. PBDE congener profiles in soil were broadly representative of the major constituents in Penta-, Octa- and Deca-BDE commercial mixtures and related to predicted market place demand. BDE-209 dominated soil profiles, followed by BDE-99 and BDE-47. Although further research is required to gain baseline data on NBFRs in soil, the current state of scientific literature suggests that NBFRs pose a similar risk to land contamination as PBDEs.

Risk assessment of PBDEs and PAHs in house dust in Kocaeli, Turkey: levels and sources

Indoor dust samples were collected from 40 homes in Kocaeli, Turkey and were analyzed simultaneously for 14 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and 16 poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) isomers. The total concentrations of PBDEs (Σ₁₄PBDEs) ranged from 29.32 to 4790 ng g^-1, with a median of 316.1 ng g^-1, while the total indoor dust concentrations of 16 PAHs (Σ₁₆PAHs) extending over three to four orders of magnitude ranged from 85.91 to 40,359 ng g^-1 with a median value of 2489 ng g^-1. Although deca-PBDE products (BDE-209) were the principal source of PBDEs contamination in the homes (median, 138.3 ng g^-1), the correlation in the homes was indicative of similar sources for both the commercial penta and deca-PBDE formulas. The PAHs diagnostic ratios indicated that the main sources of PAHs measured in the indoor samples could be coal/biomass combustion, smoking, and cooking emissions. For children and adults, the contributions to ∑₁₄PBDEs exposure were approximately 93 and 25 % for the ingestion of indoor dust, and 7 and 75 % for dermal contact. Exposure to ∑₁₆PAHs through dermal contact was the dominant route for both children (90.6 %) and adults (99.7 %). For both groups, exposure by way of inhalation of indoor dust contaminated with PBDEs and PAHs was negligible. The hazard index (HI) values for BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-153, and BDE-209 were lower than the safe limit of 1, and this result suggested that none of the population groups would be likely to experience potential health risk due to exposure to PBDEs from indoor dust in the study area. Considering only ingestion + dermal contact, the carcinogenic risk levels of both B2 PAHs and BDE-209 for adults were 6.2 × 10^-5 in the US EPA safe limit range while those for children were 5.6 × 10^-4 and slightly higher than the US EPA safe limit range (1 × 10^-6 and 1 × 10^-4). Certain precautions should be considered for children.

Monthly variation in faeces:blood concentration ratio of persistent organic pollutants over the first year of life: a case study of one infant

Previous studies have found that the concentrations of a range of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in faeces is linearly proportional to the POP concentrations in blood of human adults irrespective of age and gender. In order to investigate the correlation between POP concentrations in faeces and blood in infants, the monthly variation of POP concentrations in faeces over the first year of life of one infant was investigated in this study and compared to modelled blood concentrations. Faecal samples were collected from one male infant daily. The samples were pooled by month and analysed for three selected POPs (2,2('),4,4('),5,5(')-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB153), p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) and 2,2('),4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE47)). The POP concentrations in faecal samples increased for the first four months by a factor of 2.9, 4.9 and 1.4 for PCB153, BDE47, and p,p'-DDE, respectively. The faecal concentrations of all POPs decreased rapidly following the introduction of formula and solid food to the diet and subsequent weaning of the infant. Further, a one-compartment model was developed to estimate the daily POP concentrations in the blood of the infant. The POP concentrations in blood were predicted to vary much less over the first year than those observed in faeces. The faeces:blood concentration ratio of selected POPs (Kfb) differed significantly (P<0.0001) between the period before and after weaning, and observed changes in Kfb are far greater than the uncertainty in the estimated Kfb. A more stable Kfb after weaning indicates the possibility of applying the stable Kfb values for non-invasive assessment of internal exposure in infants after weaning. The intra-individual variation in Kfb in infants is worthy of further investigation.

Concentrations of legacy and emerging flame retardants in air and soil on a transect in the UK West Midlands

Passive air samples were collected monthly for 6 months from 8 sites along a transect of Birmingham, United Kingdom between June 2012 and January 2013. Soil samples were collected once at each site. Average concentrations of BDE-209, ΣPBDEs17:183 and ΣPBDEs in ambient air were 150, 49, and 180 pg m(-3), respectively. Atmospheric concentrations of PBDEs were negatively correlated with distance from the city centre, exhibiting an "urban pulse". The average ΣHBCDD air concentration was 100 pg m(-3), however concentrations were not correlated with distance from the city centre. Several emerging flame retardants (EFRs) were identified in air and/or soil samples: 2,3,4,5-tetrabromo-bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (BEH-TEBP), 1,2-dibromo-4-(1,2 dibromoethyl)cyclohexane (TBECH or DBE-DBCH), allyl 2,4,6-tribromophenyl ether (ATE), 2-bromoallyl 2,4,6-tribromophenyl ether (BATE), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), and dechlorane plus (DP or DDC-CO). Average concentrations of BDE-209, ΣPBDEs17:183 and ΣPBDEs in soil were 11, 3.6, and 15 ng g(-1) soil organic matter. PBDE concentrations in soil were higher at sites closest to the city centre, however correlations with distance from the city centre were not significant. BDEs-47 and -99 contributed more to ΣPBDEs in soil samples than air samples, but in both, the predominant congener was BDE-209. BATE was more abundant in air than soil but ATE was abundant in soil but not air.

Molecularly imprinted polymers for the analysis and removal of polychlorinated aromatic compounds in the environment: a review

Molecularly imprinted polymers selective to polychlorinated aromatic compounds for application in environmental studies.