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Cordina RJ, Smith B, Tuttle T. Mathematical and computational modeling of fats and triacylglycerides. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2024; 23:e13316. [PMID: 38506169 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Fats and oils are found in many food products; however, their macroscopic properties are difficult to predict, especially when blending different fats or oils together. With difficulties in sourcing specific fats or oils, whether due to availability or pricing, food companies may be required to find alternative sources for these ingredients, with possible differences in ingredient performance. Mathematical and computational modeling of these ingredients can provide a quick way to predict their properties, avoiding costly trials or manufacturing problems, while, most importantly, keeping the consumers happy. This review covers a range of mathematical models for triacylglycerides (TAGs) and fats, namely, models for the prediction of melting point, solid fat content, and crystallization temperature and composition. There are a number of models that have been designed for both TAGs and fats and which have been shown to agree very well with empirical measurements, using both kinetic and thermodynamic approaches, with models for TAGs being used to, in turn, predict fat properties. The last section describes computational models to simulate the behavior of TAGs using molecular dynamics (MD). Simulation of TAGs using MD, however, is still at an early stage, although the most recent papers on this topic are bringing this area up to speed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Cordina
- Cadbury UK Ltd., Birmingham, UK
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Tell Tuttle
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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Gu X, Du L, Meng Z. Comparative study of natural wax-based W/O emulsion gels: Microstructure and macroscopic properties. Food Res Int 2023; 165:112509. [PMID: 36869516 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, six kinds of natural wax, including sunflower wax (SFX), rice bran wax (RBX), carnauba Brazilian wax (CBX), beeswax (BWX), candelilla wax (CDX), and sugarcane wax (SGX) were used to prepare water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion gels. Microstructures and rheological properties of all emulsion gels were investigated by microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and rheometer, respectively. By comparing polarized light images of wax-based emulsion gels and corresponding wax-based oleogels, it could be found that dispersed water droplets greatly affected the crystal distribution and hindered crystal growth. Polarized light microscopy and CLSM images proved that natural wax could perform a dual-stabilization mechanism by interfacial crystallization and crystal networks. SEM images illustrated all waxes except SGX were platelets and formed networks by stacking on top of each other, while flocs-like SGX was easier to adsorb on the interface and formed a "crystalline shell". The surface area and pore formed by different wax varied wildly, which accounted for their differences in the gelation ability, oil binding capacity, and strength of the crystal network. The rheological study showed that all wax had solid-like properties and wax-based oleogels with denser crystal networks correspond to emulsion gels with higher modules. The dense crystal network and interfacial crystallization could improve the stability of W/O emulsion gels proved by recovery rates and critical strain. All the above proved that natural wax-based emulsion gels can be used as stable, low-fat, and thermal-sensitive fat mimics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinya Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Liyang Du
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Zong Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
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Effects of triolein dilution on the structural and mechanical properties of lauric acid-rich fat. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Cordina RJ, Smith B, Tuttle T. Reproduction of macroscopic properties of unsaturated triacylglycerides using a modified NERD force field. J Mol Graph Model 2021; 108:107996. [PMID: 34340008 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2021.107996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Unsaturated triacylglycerides are found in many commonly consumed foods, such as cooking oils, nuts and chocolate. There are however very few publications on Molecular Dynamics simulations of such molecules, and, to the best of our knowledge, no such published research on crystalline mono-unsaturated triacylglycerides. The work described in this paper is an evaluation of different force fields (GROMOS96 and NERD) to determine the best force field parameters to reproduce the crystalline and melted macroscopic properties of such molecules accurately. The best results were obtained by modifying the NERD force field, through which we were able to reproduce the crystalline and melted density as well as crystal dimensions of mono-unsaturated triacylglycerides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Cordina
- Mondelēz UK R&D Ltd., PO Box 12, Bournville Lane, Birmingham B30 2LU, UK; Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, UK
| | - Beccy Smith
- Mondelēz UK R&D Ltd., PO Box 12, Bournville Lane, Birmingham B30 2LU, UK
| | - Tell Tuttle
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, UK.
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Liu C, Zheng Z, Zaaboul F, Cao C, Huang X, Liu Y. Effects of wax concentration and carbon chain length on the structural modification of fat crystals. Food Funct 2019; 10:5413-5425. [PMID: 31397453 DOI: 10.1039/c9fo00813f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Natural waxes are cost-effective and potential fat crystallization modifiers; however, there is limited information about their implementation in solid triacylglycerol (TAG) oil. Herein, we investigated the effects of two natural waxes, namely, candelilla wax (CLW) and rice bran wax (RW), with different concentrations (2, 4, 6, and 8 wt%) and carbon chains on the crystal growth and structure of palm kernel stearin (PKS85). CLW significantly accelerated the PKS85 crystallization process. Both waxes could induce a new hydrocarbon chain with the lengths of 3.70 and 4.15 Å during the TAG crystallization, respectively. Particularly, X-ray diffraction (XRD) indicated that PKS85 combined with CLW showed a similar lamellar thickness (d001) and crystal domain size (ξ) with pure PKS85, whereas that of PKS85 containing RW was 1.7-1.8 and 1.5-1.8 fold higher, respectively. This result corresponded to the carbon chain length of CLW and RW, which was double and quadruple that of PKS85, respectively. Further, these variations were reflected in the crystal microstructures of PKS85 with CLW and RW, where the former showed small homogeneous crystals, while the latter displayed large rod-like layered crystals. In addition, the firmness significantly increased when CLW and RW were added, which is possibly attributed to the fact that the waxes became the backbone of the crystal "fence". Our findings give clear insight into the interaction between TAGs and wax molecules in the crystallization process, which can help guide the utilization of natural waxes in the modification of fats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunhuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhaojun Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
| | - Farah Zaaboul
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
| | - Chen Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xinlei Huang
- School of Food Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832000, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanfa Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
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Ramel PR, Co ED, Acevedo NC, Marangoni AG. Structure and functionality of nanostructured triacylglycerol crystal networks. Prog Lipid Res 2016; 64:231-242. [DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2016.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Blake AI, Marangoni AG. The Use of Cooling Rate to Engineer the Microstructure and Oil Binding Capacity of Wax Crystal Networks. FOOD BIOPHYS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11483-015-9409-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Blake AI, Marangoni AG. Plant wax crystals display platelet-like morphology. FOOD STRUCTURE-NETHERLANDS 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foostr.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Peyronel F, Quinn B, Marangoni AG, Pink DA. Ultra small angle x-ray scattering in complex mixtures of triacylglycerols. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2014; 26:464110. [PMID: 25347118 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/26/46/464110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Ultra-small angle x-ray scattering (USAXS) has been used to elucidate, in situ, the aggregation structure of unsheared model edible oils. Each system comprised one or two solid lipids and a combination of liquid lipids. The 3D nano- to micro-structures of each system were characterized. The length scale investigated, using the Bonse-Hart camera at beamline ID-15D at the Advanced Photon Source, ANL, ranged from 300 Å-10 µm. Using the Unified Fit model, level-1 analysis showed that the scatterers were 2D objects with either a smooth, a rough, or a diffuse surface. These 2D objects had an average radius of gyration Rg1 between 200-1500 Å. Level-2 analysis displayed a slope between -1 and -2. Use of the Guinier-Porod model gave s ≈ 1 thus showing that it was cylinders (TAGwoods) aggregating with fractal dimension 1 ≤ D2 ≤ 2. D2 = 1 is consistent with 1D structures formed from TAGwoods, while D2 = 2 implies that the TAGwoods had formed structures characteristic of diffusion or reaction limited cluster-cluster aggregation (DLCA/RLCA). These aggregates exhibited radii of gyration, Rg2, between 2500 and 6500 Å. Level-3 analyses showed diffuse surfaces, for most of the systems. These interpretations are in accord with theoretical models which studied crystalline nano-platelets (CNPs) coated with nano-scale layers arising from phase separation at the CNP surfaces. These layers could be due to either liquid-liquid phase separation with the CNPs coated, uniformly or non-uniformly, by a diffuse layer of TAGs, or solid-liquid phase separation with the CNPs coated by a rough layer of crystallites.A fundamental understanding of the self-organizing structures arising in these systems helps advance the characterization of fat crystal networks from nanometres to micrometres. This research can be used to design novel fat structures that use healthier fats via nano- and meso-scale structural engineering.
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