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Lee I, So H, Kim J, Auh JH, Wall MM, Li Y, Ho K, Jun S. Selective Detection of Escherichia coli K12 and Staphylococcus aureus in Mixed Bacterial Communities Using a Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube (SWCNT)-Functionalized Electrochemical Immunosensor with Dielectrophoretic Concentration. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:985. [PMID: 36985878 PMCID: PMC10051117 DOI: 10.3390/nano13060985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
An electrochemical immunosensor has been developed for the rapid detection and identification of potentially harmful bacteria in food and environmental samples. This study aimed to fabricate a microwire-based electrochemical immunosensor (MEI sensor) for selective detection of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus in microbial cocktail samples using dielectrophoresis (DEP)-based cell concentration. A gold-coated tungsten microwire was functionalized by coating polyethylenimine, single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) suspension, streptavidin, biotinylated antibodies, and then bovine serum albumin (BSA) solutions. Double-layered SWCNTs and 5% BSA solution were found to be optimized for enhanced signal enhancement and nonspecific binding barrier. The selective capture of E. coli K12 or S. aureus cells was achieved when the electric field in the bacterial sample solution was generated at a frequency of 3 MHz and 20 Vpp. A linear trend of the change in the electron transfer resistance was observed as E. coli concentrations increased from 5.32 × 102 to 1.30 × 108 CFU/mL (R2 = 0.976). The S. aureus MEI sensor fabricated with the anti-S. aureus antibodies also showed an increase in resistance with concentrations of S. aureus (8.90 × 102-3.45 × 107 CFU/mL) with a correlation of R2 = 0.983. Salmonella typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes were used to evaluate the specificity of the MEI sensors. The functionalization process developed for the MEI sensor is expected to contribute to the sensitive and selective detection of other harmful microorganisms in food and environmental industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inae Lee
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food, and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA; (I.L.)
| | - Heejin So
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food, and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA; (I.L.)
| | - Jungyoon Kim
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Joong-Hyuck Auh
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Marisa M. Wall
- Daniel K. Inouye U.S. Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Center, 64 Nowelo Street, Hilo, HI 96720, USA
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food, and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA; (I.L.)
| | - Kacie Ho
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food, and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA; (I.L.)
| | - Soojin Jun
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food, and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA; (I.L.)
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Kahng SJ, Soelberg SD, Fondjo F, Kim JH, Furlong CE, Chung JH. Carbon nanotube-based thin-film resistive sensor for point-of-care screening of tuberculosis. Biomed Microdevices 2020; 22:50. [PMID: 32725281 DOI: 10.1007/s10544-020-00506-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
For point-of-care diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB), current TB diagnostic approaches need to be further improved for achieving an accurate diagnosis that is rapid and low-cost. This paper presents an immuno-resistive sensor on a plastic film for inexpensive, simple TB screening. The sensor is composed of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) functionalized with polyclonal antibodies raised against the MPT64 surface antigen from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). The target analyte of either MTB or MPT64 is spiked in tongue swab and sputum samples. Under optimized conditions, targets are directly detected from tongue swab samples by resistive measurement. Target analytes spiked into human sputa are enriched with a magnetic bead protocol followed by resistive detection. This highly sensitive film sensor will facilitate rapid TB screening with the added benefits of a small form factor, simple operation, low power requirement, and low cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong-Joong Kahng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Scott D Soelberg
- Departments of Medicine-Division of Medical Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Fabrice Fondjo
- School of Engineering and Computer Science, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA, 98686, USA
| | - Jong-Hoon Kim
- School of Engineering and Computer Science, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA, 98686, USA
| | - Clement E Furlong
- Departments of Medicine-Division of Medical Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Jae-Hyun Chung
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
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Sai-Anand G, Sivanesan A, Benzigar MR, Singh G, Gopalan AI, Baskar AV, Ilbeygi H, Ramadass K, Kambala V, Vinu A. Recent Progress on the Sensing of Pathogenic Bacteria Using Advanced Nanostructures. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2019. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.20180280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gopalan Sai-Anand
- Global Innovative Center for Advanced Nanomaterials, Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan 2308, New South Wales, Australia
- Future Industries Institute, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
| | - Arumugam Sivanesan
- Future Industries Institute, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
- Metrohm Australia, 56 Buffalo Road, Gladesville, NSW 2111, Australia
| | - Mercy R Benzigar
- Future Industries Institute, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
| | - Gurwinder Singh
- Global Innovative Center for Advanced Nanomaterials, Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan 2308, New South Wales, Australia
- Future Industries Institute, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
| | - Anantha-Iyengar Gopalan
- Research Institute of Advanced Energy Technology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
| | - Arun Vijay Baskar
- Global Innovative Center for Advanced Nanomaterials, Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan 2308, New South Wales, Australia
- Future Industries Institute, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
| | - Hamid Ilbeygi
- Future Industries Institute, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
| | - Kavitha Ramadass
- Global Innovative Center for Advanced Nanomaterials, Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan 2308, New South Wales, Australia
- Future Industries Institute, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
| | - Venkata Kambala
- Hudson Marketing Pty Ltd, Level 2/131 Macquarie St, Sydney NSW 2000, Australia
| | - Ajayan Vinu
- Global Innovative Center for Advanced Nanomaterials, Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan 2308, New South Wales, Australia
- Future Industries Institute, Division of Information Technology, Engineering and Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
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Lee HB, Inoue S, Kim JH, Jeong M, Chung JH. Electrokinetic Behavior of Heat-Treated Mycobacterium Bacillus Calmette-Guérin Cells. J Med Device 2018. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4040677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Dielectrophoresis (DEP) can be an effective tool to show the physiological change of bacterial cells. The behavior of bacterial cells under an electric field is complicated due to the combined effects of electrokinetic phenomena. This paper presents the study of the electrokinetic behavior of heat-treated Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) cells for a cell counting method. Through numerical and experimental study, heat-treated BCG cells are compared with control BCG cells. At various frequencies with the medium conductivity of 0.07 S/m, the equilibrium positions of both control- and heat-treated cells are analyzed in the combined fields of DEP and AC electroosmosis (ACEO). As DEP changes from negative to positive in electroosmotic flow, the equilibrium position of cells is bifurcated from the upper center between two electrodes onto the edges of both electrodes. It was found that the cells floating on electrodes should not be counted as attracted cells because the floating was resulted from the combined effect of the negative DEP and ACEO. According to the analysis, an optimum frequency is proposed to differentiate control cells from heat-treated cells using a cell counting method. The presented study will offer physical insight for the cell counting to differentiate live and dead Mycobacterium bovis BCG cells treated with heat and drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Boo Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, P.O. Box 352600, Seattle, WA 98195 e-mail:
| | - Shinnosuke Inoue
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, P.O. Box 352600, Seattle, WA 98195 e-mail:
| | - Jong-Hoon Kim
- School of Engineering and Computer Science, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA 98686 e-mail:
| | - Minjoong Jeong
- National Supercomputing Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information, Daejeon 34141, South Korea e-mail:
| | - Jae-Hyun Chung
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, P.O. Box 352600, Seattle, WA 98195 e-mail:
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A Microneedle Functionalized with Polyethyleneimine and Nanotubes for Highly Sensitive, Label-Free Quantification of DNA. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17081883. [PMID: 28812987 PMCID: PMC5579740 DOI: 10.3390/s17081883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The accurate measure of DNA concentration is necessary for many DNA-based biological applications. However, the current methods are limited in terms of sensitivity, reproducibility, human error, and contamination. Here, we present a microneedle functionalized with polyethyleneimine (PEI) and single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) for the highly sensitive quantification of DNA. The microneedle was fabricated using ultraviolet (UV) lithography and anisotropic etching, and then functionalized with PEI and SWCNTs through a dip coating process. The electrical characteristics of the microneedle change with the accumulation of DNA on the surface. Current-voltage measurements in deionized water were conducted to study these changes in the electrical properties of the sensor. The sensitivity test found the signal to be discernable from the noise level down to 100 attomolar (aM), demonstrating higher sensitivity than currently available UV fluorescence and UV absorbance based methods. A microneedle without any surface modification only had a 100 femtomolar (fM) sensitivity. All measurement results were consistent with fluorescence microscopy.
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Nanostructured Tip-Shaped Biosensors: Application of Six Sigma Approach for Enhanced Manufacturing. SENSORS 2016; 17:s17010017. [PMID: 28025540 PMCID: PMC5298590 DOI: 10.3390/s17010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 12/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nanostructured tip-shaped biosensors have drawn attention for biomolecule detection as they are promising for highly sensitive and specific detection of a target analyte. Using a nanostructured tip, the sensitivity is increased to identify individual molecules because of the high aspect ratio structure. Various detection methods, such as electrochemistry, fluorescence microcopy, and Raman spectroscopy, have been attempted to enhance the sensitivity and the specificity. Due to the confined path of electrons, electrochemical measurement using a nanotip enables the detection of single molecules. When an electric field is combined with capillary action and fluid flow, target molecules can be effectively concentrated onto a nanotip surface for detection. To enhance the concentration efficacy, a dendritic nanotip rather than a single tip could be used to detect target analytes, such as nanoparticles, cells, and DNA. However, reproducible fabrication with relation to specific detection remains a challenge due to the instability of a manufacturing method, resulting in inconsistent shape. In this paper, nanostructured biosensors are reviewed with our experimental results using dendritic nanotips for sequence specific detection of DNA. By the aid of the Six Sigma approach, the fabrication yield of dendritic nanotips increases from 20.0% to 86.6%. Using the nanotips, DNA is concentrated and detected in a sequence specific way with the detection limit equivalent to 1000 CFU/mL. The pros and cons of a nanotip biosensor are evaluated in conjunction with future prospects.
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Yamada K, Choi W, Lee I, Cho BK, Jun S. Rapid detection of multiple foodborne pathogens using a nanoparticle-functionalized multi-junction biosensor. Biosens Bioelectron 2016; 77:137-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/12/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Inoue S, Lee HB, Becker AL, Weigel KM, Kim JH, Lee KH, Cangelosi GA, Chung JH. Dielectrophoretic characterization of antibiotic-treated Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex cells. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:7673-80. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8928-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Hiraiwa M, Kim JH, Lee HB, Inoue S, Becker AL, Weigel KM, Cangelosi GA, Lee KH, Chung JH. Amperometric immunosensor for rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. JOURNAL OF MICROMECHANICS AND MICROENGINEERING : STRUCTURES, DEVICES, AND SYSTEMS 2015; 25:055013. [PMID: 26097292 PMCID: PMC4469293 DOI: 10.1088/0960-1317/25/5/055013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) has been a major public health problem, which can be better controlled by using accurate and rapid diagnosis in low-resource settings. A simple, portable, and sensitive detection method is required for point-of-care (POC) settings. This paper studies an amperometric biosensor using a microtip immunoassay for a rapid and low cost detection of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis (MTB) in sputum. MTB in sputum is specifically captured on the functionalized microtip surface and detected by electric current. According to the numerical study, the current signal on microtip surface is linearly changed with increasing immersion depth. Using a reference microtip, the immersion depth is compensated for a sensing microtip. On the microtip surface, target bacteria are concentrated and organized by a coffee ring effect, which amplifies the electric current. To enhance the signal-to-noise ratio, both the sample processing- and rinsing steps are presented with use of deionized water as a medium for the amperometric measurement. When applied to cultured MTB cells spiked into human sputum, the detection limit was 100 CFU/mL, comparable to a more labor-intensive fluorescence detection method reported previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan Hiraiwa
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Jong-Hoon Kim
- School of Engineering and Computer Science, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA, 98686
- Corresponding authors: Jong-Hoon Kim: Tel/Fax 1-360-546-9250/1-360-546-9438,
| | - Hyun-Boo Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Shinnosuke Inoue
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Annie L. Becker
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Kris M. Weigel
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Gerard A. Cangelosi
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | | | - Jae-Hyun Chung
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
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Yamada K, Kim CT, Kim JH, Chung JH, Lee HG, Jun S. Single walled carbon nanotube-based junction biosensor for detection of Escherichia coli. PLoS One 2014; 9:e105767. [PMID: 25233366 PMCID: PMC4169404 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Foodborne pathogen detection using biomolecules and nanomaterials may lead to platforms for rapid and simple electronic biosensing. Integration of single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and immobilized antibodies into a disposable bio-nano combinatorial junction sensor was fabricated for detection of Escherichia coli K-12. Gold tungsten wires (50 µm diameter) coated with polyethylenimine (PEI) and SWCNTs were aligned to form a crossbar junction, which was functionalized with streptavidin and biotinylated antibodies to allow for enhanced specificity towards targeted microbes. In this study, changes in electrical current (ΔI) after bioaffinity reactions between bacterial cells (E. coli K-12) and antibodies on the SWCNT surface were monitored to evaluate the sensor's performance. The averaged ΔI increased from 33.13 nA to 290.9 nA with the presence of SWCNTs in a 108 CFU/mL concentration of E. coli, thus showing an improvement in sensing magnitude. Electrical current measurements demonstrated a linear relationship (R2 = 0.973) between the changes in current and concentrations of bacterial suspension in range of 102–105 CFU/mL. Current decreased as cell concentrations increased, due to increased bacterial resistance on the bio-nano modified surface. The detection limit of the developed sensor was 102 CFU/mL with a detection time of less than 5 min with nanotubes. Therefore, the fabricated disposable junction biosensor with a functionalized SWCNT platform shows potential for high-performance biosensing and application as a detection device for foodborne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara Yamada
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food, and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Chong-Tai Kim
- Korea Food Research Institute, Seongnam-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Hoon Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jae-Hyun Chung
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Hyeon Gyu Lee
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Soojin Jun
- Department of Human Nutrition, Food, and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Bao G, Bazilevs Y, Chung JH, Decuzzi P, Espinosa HD, Ferrari M, Gao H, Hossain SS, Hughes TJR, Kamm RD, Liu WK, Marsden A, Schrefler B. USNCTAM perspectives on mechanics in medicine. J R Soc Interface 2014; 11:20140301. [PMID: 24872502 PMCID: PMC4208360 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2014.0301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Over decades, the theoretical and applied mechanics community has developed sophisticated approaches for analysing the behaviour of complex engineering systems. Most of these approaches have targeted systems in the transportation, materials, defence and energy industries. Applying and further developing engineering approaches for understanding, predicting and modulating the response of complicated biomedical processes not only holds great promise in meeting societal needs, but also poses serious challenges. This report, prepared for the US National Committee on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, aims to identify the most pressing challenges in biological sciences and medicine that can be tackled within the broad field of mechanics. This echoes and complements a number of national and international initiatives aiming at fostering interdisciplinary biomedical research. This report also comments on cultural/educational challenges. Specifically, this report focuses on three major thrusts in which we believe mechanics has and will continue to have a substantial impact. (i) Rationally engineering injectable nano/microdevices for imaging and therapy of disease. Within this context, we discuss nanoparticle carrier design, vascular transport and adhesion, endocytosis and tumour growth in response to therapy, as well as uncertainty quantification techniques to better connect models and experiments. (ii) Design of biomedical devices, including point-of-care diagnostic systems, model organ and multi-organ microdevices, and pulsatile ventricular assistant devices. (iii) Mechanics of cellular processes, including mechanosensing and mechanotransduction, improved characterization of cellular constitutive behaviour, and microfluidic systems for single-cell studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Bao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yuri Bazilevs
- Department of Structural Engineering, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Jae-Hyun Chung
- Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Paolo Decuzzi
- Department of Translational Imaging, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute in Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Horacio D Espinosa
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Mauro Ferrari
- Department of Translational Imaging, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute in Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Huajian Gao
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Shaolie S Hossain
- Molecular Cardiology, Texas Heart Institute, 6770 Bertner Avenue, MC 2-255, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Thomas J R Hughes
- Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712-1229, USA
| | - Roger D Kamm
- Mechanical Engineering, Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Mass Avenue, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Wing Kam Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Alison Marsden
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Bernhard Schrefler
- Centre for Mechanics of Biological Materials, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Zhang P, Wang S. Designing Fractal Nanostructured Biointerfaces for Biomedical Applications. Chemphyschem 2014; 15:1550-61. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201301230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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