Meniscus formation in a capillary and the role of contact line friction

Dynamic wetting of various liquids: Theoretical models, experiments, simulations and applications

Dynamic wetting is a ubiquitous phenomenon and frequently observed in our daily life, as exemplified by the famous lotus effect. It is also an interfacial process of upmost importance involving many cutting-edge applications and has hence received significantly increasing academic and industrial attention for several decades. However, we are still far away to completely understand and predict wetting dynamics for a given system due to the complexity of this dynamic process. The physics of moving contact lines is mainly ascribed to the full coupling with the solid surface on which the liquids contact, the atmosphere surrounding the liquids, and the physico-chemical characteristics of the liquids involved (small-molecule liquids, metal liquids, polymer liquids, and simulated liquids). Therefore, to deepen the understanding and efficiently harness wetting dynamics, we propose to review the major advances in the available literature. After an introduction providing a concise and general background on dynamic wetting, the main theories are presented and critically compared. Next, the dynamic wetting of various liquids ranging from small-molecule liquids to simulated liquids are systematically summarized, in which the new physical concepts (such as surface segregation, contact line fluctuations, etc.) are particularly highlighted. Subsequently, the related emerging applications are briefly presented in this review. Finally, some tentative suggestions and challenges are proposed with the aim to guide future developments.

Superwicking Functionality of Femtosecond Laser Textured Aluminum at High Temperatures

An advanced superwicking aluminum material based on a microgroove surface structure textured with both laser-induced periodic surface structures and fine microholes was produced by direct femtosecond laser nano/microstructuring technology. The created material demonstrates excellent wicking performance in a temperature range of 23 to 120 °C. The experiments on wicking dynamics show a record-high velocity of water spreading that achieves about 450 mm/s at 23 °C and 320 mm/s at 120 °C when the spreading water undergoes intensive boiling. The lifetime of classic Washburn capillary flow dynamics shortens as the temperature increases up to 80 °C. The effects of evaporation and boiling on water spreading become significant above 80 °C, resulting in vanishing of Washburn's dynamics. Both the inertial and visco-inertial flow regimes are insignificantly affected by evaporation at temperatures below the boiling point of water. The boiling effect on the inertial regime is small at 120 °C; however, its effect on the visco-inertial regime is essential. The created material with effective wicking performance under water boiling conditions can find applications in Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle) high-temperature heat/mass exchangers for enhancing power generation efficiency that is an important factor in reducing CO2 emissions and mitigation of the global climate change.

Spreading and Drying Dynamics of Water Drop on Hot Surface of Superwicking Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Material Fabricated by Femtosecond Laser

A superwicking Ti-6Al-4V alloy material with a hierarchical capillary surface structure was fabricated using femtosecond laser. The basic capillary surface structure is an array of micropillars/microholes. For enhancing its capillary action, the surface of the micropillars/microholes is additionally structured by regular fine microgrooves using a technique of laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS), providing an extremely strong capillary action in a temperature range between 23 °C and 80 °C. Due to strong capillary action, a water drop quickly spreads in the wicking surface structure and forms a thin film over a large surface area, resulting in fast evaporation. The maximum water flow velocity after the acceleration stage is found to be 225–250 mm/s. In contrast to other metallic materials with surface capillarity produced by laser processing, the wicking performance of which quickly degrades with time, the wicking functionality of the material created here is long-lasting. Strong and long-lasting wicking properties make the created material suitable for a large variety of practical applications based on liquid-vapor phase change. Potential significant energy savings in air-conditioning and cooling data centers due to application of the material created here can contribute to mitigation of global warming.

Direct Measurement of Contact Angle Change in Capillary Rise

Capillary rise is important in many aspects of physical phenomena from transport in porous media to biotechnology. It is typically described by the Lucas-Washburn-Rideal equation (LWRE), but discrepancy between some experiments and the model still remains elusive. In this paper, we show that the discrepancy is simply from the contact angle change during the capillary rise with no help of any specific models, such as dynamic contact angle (DCA) models. To demonstrate this, we directly measure the contact angle change in the capillary rise for glycerol and carboxymethyl cellulose solutions as examples of Newtonian and non-Newtonian liquids. Unlike previous studies that used DCA models to explain the discrepancy, when the contact angle change is directly applied to the LWRE for all four tested fluids, the model agrees well with experimental data. The estimated contact angle from the capillary rise as a function of time is in good agreement with the directly measured contact angle within a narrow margin of error. To pinpoint the conditions for the discrepancy, we propose a new time scale when contact angle dynamics dominates. The contact angle dynamics that can be obtained from the macroscopic capillary rise may provide useful information for capillary flow in a more complicated geometry such as porous media.

Temperature Effect on Capillary Flow Dynamics in 1D Array of Open Nanotextured Microchannels Produced by Femtosecond Laser on Silicon

Capillary flow of water in an array of open nanotextured microgrooves fabricated by femtosecond laser processing of silicon is studied as a function of temperature using high-speed video recording. In a temperature range of 23-80 °C, the produced wicking material provides extremely fast liquid flow with a maximum velocity of 37 cm/s in the initial spreading stage prior to visco-inertial regime. The capillary performance of the material enhances with increasing temperature in the inertial, visco-inertial, and partially in Washburn flow regimes. The classic universal Washburn's regime is observed at all studied temperatures, giving the evidence of its universality at high temperatures as well. The obtained results are of great significance for creating capillary materials for applications in cooling of electronics, energy harvesting, enhancing the critical heat flux of industrial boilers, and Maisotsenko cycle technologies.

Inertial capillary uptake of drops

Uptake of liquid drops into capillary tubes has been experimentally studied and quantitatively analyzed. In experiments, drops of water and aqueous glycerol (≤50 wt %) were drawn into cylindrical borosilicate glass and quartz tubes with an inner diameter of 0.50-0.75 mm. The meniscus height rise was measured using high-speed images captured at 4000 frames per second, and results within a conservatively defined inertial regime indicate constant uptake velocity. An increase in the inertial velocity with drop curvature was observed due to increasing Laplace pressure in the drop, as drop sizes were comparable to the width of the capillary tubes. Measured velocities were slower than predicted by a purely inertial-capillary model and best described by introducing a contact line friction, consistent with the observed variability and viscosity dependence of the results. Mean friction coefficients in borosilicate capillaries ranged from 169±1 for 50 wt % glycerol drops to 218±1 for water drops. Peaks in the instantaneous Laplace pressure caused by surface oscillations were also measured. Correlations with uptake velocity were qualitatively apparent, with a delay between peaks of similar magnitude to the inertial-capillary oscillation time.

Capillary Nylon 6 polymer material produced by femtosecond laser processing

A wicking Nylon 6 polymer material was produced through surface structuring by a direct femtosecond laser nano/microstructuring approach. The produced wicking structure is an array of parallel microgrooves, the surface of which is textured with irregular nanostructures and fine microstructures. High-speed imaging of water spreading vertically uphill against the gravity discloses a series of capillary flow regimes with h ∝ t, h ∝ t1/2, and h ∝ t1/3 scaling laws, where h is the height of capillary rise and t is the time. In the initial stage, the capillary flow occurs with a single front, from which at a certain time a precursor front forms and advances ahead of the main one. Our study shows that the onset of the precursor front occurs in h ∝ t flow regime. The created material exhibits excellent wicking properties and may find applications in various technologically important areas.

Electrically modulated capillary filling imbibition of nematic liquid crystals

The flow of nematic liquid crystals (NLCs) in the presence of an electric field is typically characterized by the variation in its rheological properties due to transition in its molecular arrangements. Here, we bring out a nontrivial interplay of a consequent alteration in the resistive viscous effects and driving electrocapillary interactions, toward maneuvering the capillary filling dynamics over miniaturized scales. Considering a dynamic interplay of the relevant bulk and interfacial forces acting in tandem, our results converge nicely to previously reported experimental data. Finally, we attempt a scaling analysis to bring forth further insight to the reported observations. Our analysis paves the way for the development of microfluidic strategies with previously unexplored paradigms of interaction between electrical and fluidic phenomenon, providing with an augmented controllability on capillary filling as compared to tthose reported to be achievable by the existing strategies. This, in turn, holds utilitarian scopes in improved designs of functional capillarities in electro-optical systems, electrorheological utilities, electrokinetic flow control, as well as in interfacing and imaging systems for biomedical microdevices.

Capillary Rise: Validity of the Dynamic Contact Angle Models

The classical Lucas-Washburn-Rideal (LWR) equation, using the equilibrium contact angle, predicts a faster capillary rise process than experiments in many cases. The major contributor to the faster prediction is believed to be the velocity dependent dynamic contact angle. In this work, we investigated the dynamic contact angle models for their ability to correct the dynamic contact angle effect in the capillary rise process. We conducted capillary rise experiments of various wetting liquids in borosilicate glass capillaries and compared the model predictions with our experimental data. The results show that the LWR equations modified by the molecular kinetic theory and hydrodynamic model provide good predictions on the capillary rise of all the testing liquids with fitting parameters, while the one modified by Joos' empirical equation works for specific liquids, such as silicone oils. The LWR equation modified by molecular self-layering model predicts well the capillary rise of carbon tetrachloride, octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane, and n-alkanes with the molecular diameter or measured solvation force data. The molecular self-layering model modified LWR equation also has good predictions on the capillary rise of silicone oils covering a wide range of bulk viscosities with the same key parameter W(0), which results from the molecular self-layering. The advantage of the molecular self-layering model over the other models reveals the importance of the layered molecularly thin wetting film ahead of the main meniscus in the energy dissipation associated with dynamic contact angle. The analysis of the capillary rise of silicone oils with a wide range of bulk viscosities provides new insights into the capillary dynamics of polymer melts.

Structural and physical determinants of the proboscis-sucking pump complex in the evolution of fluid-feeding insects

Fluid-feeding insects have evolved a unique strategy to distribute the labor between a liquid-acquisition device (proboscis) and a sucking pump. We theoretically examined physical constraints associated with coupling of the proboscis and sucking pump into a united functional organ. Classification of fluid feeders with respect to the mechanism of energy dissipation is given by using only two dimensionless parameters that depend on the length and diameter of the proboscis food canal, maximum expansion of the sucking pump chamber, and chamber size. Five species of Lepidoptera — White-headed prominent moth (Symmerista albifrons), White-dotted prominent moth (Nadata gibosa), Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), Carolina sphinx moth (Manduca sexta), and Death’s head sphinx moth (Acherontia atropos) — were used to illustrate this classification. The results provide a rationale for categorizing fluid-feeding insects into two groups, depending on whether muscular energy is spent on moving fluid through the proboscis or through the pump. These findings are relevant to understanding energetic costs of evolutionary elaboration and reduction of the mouthparts and insect diversification through development of new habits by fluid-feeding insects in general and by Lepidoptera in particular.

Capillary dynamics driven by molecular self-layering

Capillary dynamics is a ubiquitous everyday phenomenon. It has practical applications in diverse fields, including ink-jet printing, lab-on-a-chip, biotechnology, and coating. Understanding capillary dynamics requires essential knowledge on the molecular level of how fluid molecules interact with a solid substrate (the wall). Recent studies conducted with the surface force apparatus (SFA), atomic force microscope (AFM), and statistical mechanics simulation revealed that molecules/nanoparticles confined into the film/wall surfaces tend to self-layer into 2D layer/s and even 2D in-layer with increased confinement and fluid volume fraction. Here, the capillary rise dynamics of simple molecular fluids in cylindrical capillary is explained by the molecular self-layering model. The proposed model considers the role of the molecular shape on self-layering and its effect on the molecularly thin film viscosity in regards to the advancing (dynamic) contact angle. The model was tested to explain the capillary rise dynamics of fluids of spherical, cylindrical, and disk shape molecules in borosilicate glass capillaries. The good agreement between the capillary rise data and SFA data from the literature for simple fluid self-layering shows the validity of the present model. The present model provides new insights into the design of many applications where dynamic wetting is important because it reveals the significant impact of molecular self-layering close to the wall on dynamic wetting.

Capillary Penetration into Inclined Circular Glass Tubes

The spontaneous penetration of a wetting liquid into a vertical tube against the force of gravity and the imbibition of the same liquid into a horizontal tube (or channel) are both driven by capillary forces and described by the same fundamental equations. However, there have been few experimental studies of the transition from one orientation to the other. We report systematic measurements of capillary penetration of polydimethylsiloxane oils of viscosities 9.6, 19.2, and 48.0 mPa·s into glass capillary tubes. We first report the effect of tube radii R between 140 and 675 μm on the dynamics of spontaneous imbibition. We show that the data can be fitted using the exact numerical solution to the governing equations and that these are similar to fits using the analytical viscogravitational approximation. However, larger diameter tubes show a rate of penetration slower than expected using an equilibrium contact angle and the known value of liquid viscosity. To account for the slowness, an increase in viscosity by a factor (η/ρ)(scaling) is needed. We show full agreement with theory requires the ratio R/κ(-1) ∼ 0.1 or less, where κ(-1) is the capillary length. In addition, we propose an experimental method that enables the determination of the dynamic contact angle during imbibition, which gives values that agree with the literature values. We then report measurements of dynamic penetration into the tubes of R = 190 and 650 μm for a range of inclination angles to the horizontal, φ, from 5 to 90°. We show that capillary penetration can still be fitted using the viscogravitational solution, rather than the Bosanquet solution which describes imbibition without gravity, even for inclination angles as low as 10°. Moreover, at these low angles, the effect of the tube radius is found to diminish and this appears to relate to an effective capillary length, κ(-1)(φ) = (γ(LV)/ρg sin φ)(1/2).

Effect of the meniscus contact angle during early regimes of spontaneous imbibition in nanochannels

Time evolution of the capillary front and meniscus contact angle during the capillary filling of silica nanochannels.

Electro-capillary effects in capillary filling dynamics of electrorheological fluids

The flow of electrorheological fluids is characterized by an apparent increase in viscosity manifested by the yield stress property of the fluid, which is a function of the applied electric field and the concentration of the suspended solute phase within the dielectric medium. This property of electrorheological fluids generally hinders flow through a capillary if the imposed shear stress is lower than the induced yield stress. This results in a plug-like zone in the flow profile, thus giving the fluid Bingham plastic properties. In the present work, we study such influences of the yield stress on the capillary filling dynamics of an electrorheological fluid by employing a rheologically consistent reduced order formalism. One important feature of the theoretical formalism is its ability to address the intricate interplay between the surface tension and viscous forces, both of which depend sensitively on the electric field. Our analysis reveals that the progress of the capillary front is hindered at an intermediate temporal regime, which is attributable to the increase of the span of the plug-zone across the channel width with time. With a preliminary understanding on the cessation of the capillary front advancement due to the yield stress property of the electrorheological fluids, we further strive to achieve a basic comparison with an experimental study made earlier. Reasonable agreements with the reported data support our theoretical framework. Comprehensive scaling analysis brings further insight to our reported observations over various temporal regimes.

Effect of entrapped phase on the filling characteristics of closed-end nanopores

We investigated the filling dynamics in closed-end capillaries of sub-micron length scale, in which the displacing phase advances at the expense of the entrapped phase. Contrary to common intuition, we reveal that the existence of a displaced phase in a closed-end nano-scale system does not necessarily retard the meniscus advancement over all temporal regimes, unlike what is observed in cases of macro-scale capillaries, but can also sometimes augment the local filling rates. We determined that the combined effect of surface wettability and the displaced phase molecules resulted from the pinning-depinning of the meniscus, and hence, from the local dynamics of capillary filling. We also employed a simple force balance-based model to capture the essential interfacial phenomena governing this behavior, and benchmarked the same with our molecular dynamics simulations. Our results suggest a possible mechanism for modifying the effective wettabilities of nano-scale capillaries without any modification of the surface architecture or chemical treatment of the surface.

Early regimes of water capillary flow in slit silica nanochannels

Molecular simulation of the capillary filling of water in a silica nanoslit. An atomistic description of the capillary filling process allows us to conduct a detailed study of the validity of the Bosanquet equation at the nanoscale.