Vapor detection and vapor pressure measurements of fentanyl and fentanyl hydrochloride salt at ambient temperatures

Non-contact, real-time vapor detection of fentanyl and fentanyl hydrochloride was demonstrated at ambient conditions, and vapor pressure values were measured.

Non-contact detection of thiodiglycol vapors and associated degradation products using atmospheric flow tube mass spectrometry

Thiodiglycol (TDG) is a synthetic precursor and an environmental degradation product of sulfur mustard (HD). Consequently, its presence can be indicative of illicit preparation or historical presence of chemical weapons, but its lower toxicity lends itself to use as an HD simulant for testing and method development. Detection of TDG vapor often proves elusive with existing techniques exhibiting undesirably high detection limits in the gas phase (>ppm). Moreover, traditional approaches to detecting TDG vapor rely upon non-specific approaches that do not provide the certainty afforded by mass spectrometry. Using atmospheric flow tube mass spectrometry (AFT-MS), which has previously demonstrated the capacity to detect parts-per-quadrillion levels of vapor, we evaluate the capacity of this approach for non-contact residue analysis based upon TDG vapor sampling and nitrate clustering chemistry. Furthermore, we discuss challenges with ambient vapor detection using the AFT-MS system and associated observations related to TDG degradation into 2,2'-sulfonyldiglycol from exposure to ambient conditions with vapor detection being possible even after 7-weeks of sample aging.

Trace explosive residue detection of HMX and RDX in post-detonation dust from an open-air environment

Explosives are often used in industry, geology, mining, and other applications, but it is not always clear what remains after a detonation or the fate and transport of any residual material. The goal of this study was to determine to what extent intact molecules of high explosive (HE) compounds are detectable and quantifiable from post-detonation dust and particulates in a field experiment with varied topography. We focused on HMX (1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane), which is less studied in field detonation literature, as the primary explosive material and RDX (1,3,5-Trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine) as the secondary material. The experiment was conducted at Site 300, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's Experimental Test Site, in California, USA. Two 20.4 kg and one 40.8 kg above ground explosions (primarily comprised of LX-14, an HMX-based polymer-bonded high explosive) were detonated on an open-air firing area on separate days. The complex terrain of the firing area (e.g., buildings, berm, low-height obstacles) was advantageous to study HE deposition in relation to plume dynamics. Three types of samples were collected up to 100 m away from each shot: surface swipes of aluminum plates, surface swipes of fixed objects, and filters from air samples. We used atmospheric flow tube-mass spectrometry (AFT-MS) to quantify picogram levels of molecular residue of HE material in the post-detonation dust. An aliquot of sample extract in methanol (e.g., 1 μL of 0.5 mL) was placed onto a resistive material and then thermally desorbed into the AFT-MS. We successfully detected and quantified both HMX and RDX in many of the samples. Based on mass (pg) detected and solution dilution, we back-calculated the mass collected on the swipe or filter (ng per sample). The aerial distribution of molecular residue was consistent with the path of the plume, which was strongly determined by wind speed and direction at the time of each shot. The quantity of material detected appeared to correlate more with distance from the shot and the wind conditions than with shot size. This study demonstrates that the picogram detection levels of AFT-MS are well-suited for quantification of analytes (e.g., HMX and RDX) in environmental samples.

Chemometrics in forensic science: approaches and applications

Forensic investigations are often reliant on physical evidence to reconstruct events surrounding a crime. However, there remains a need for more objective approaches to evidential interpretation, along with rigorously validated procedures for handling, storage and analysis. Chemometrics has been recognised as a powerful tool within forensic science for interpretation and optimisation of analytical procedures. However, careful consideration must be given to factors such as sampling, validation and underpinning study design. This tutorial review aims to provide an accessible overview of chemometric methods within the context of forensic science. The review begins with an overview of selected chemometric techniques, followed by a broad review of studies demonstrating the utility of chemometrics across various forensic disciplines. The tutorial review ends with the discussion of the challenges and emerging trends in this rapidly growing field.

Interrogating Proton Affinities of Organophosphonate Species Via Atmospheric Flow Tube Mass Spectrometry and Computational Methods

Within trace vapor analysis in environmental monitoring, defense, and industry, atmospheric flow tube mass spectrometry (AFT-MS) can fill a role that incorporates non-contact vapor analysis with the selectivity and low detection limits of mass spectrometry. AFT-MS has been applied to quantitating certain explosives by selective clustering with nitrate and more recently applied to detecting tributyl phosphate and dimethyl methylphosphonate as protonated species. Developing AFT-MS methods for organophosphorus species is appealing, given that this class of compounds includes a range of pollutants, chemical warfare agent (CWA) simulants, and CWA degradation products. A key aspect of targeting organophosphorus analytes has included the use of dopant ion chemistry to form adducts that impart additional analytical selectivity. The assessment of potential dopant molecules suited to enhance detection of these compounds is hindered by few published ion thermochemical properties for organophosphorus species, such as proton affinity, which can be used for approximating proton-bound dimer bond strength. As a preliminary investigation for the progression of sensing methods involving AFT-MS, we have applied both the extended kinetic method and computational approaches to eight organophosphorus CWA simulants to determine their respective gas-phase proton affinities. Notable observed trends, supported by computational efforts, include an increase in proton affinity as the alkyl chain lengths on the phosphonates increased. Graphical Abstract .

Ambient vapor sampling and selective cluster formation for the trace detection of tributyl phosphate via atmospheric flow tube mass spectrometry

In addition to serving as an f-element ligand and rare-earth method complexing agent, tributyl phosphate is a compound containing core functional groups that mimic those routinely found in degradation products from industrial processes. Because detection of trace quantities of tributyl phosphate can provide insight into the routes of contamination and degradation in the environment, there is a need to develop methods capable of detecting trace quantities of tributyl phosphate. Vapor detection at atmospheric pressure is one approach that is both sensitive and rapid. We present here the use of atmospheric flow tube mass spectrometry for the ambient vapor sampling of tributyl phosphate from headspace of ppb-level solutions in methanol. Gas phase clustering reactions were to enhance detection levels via the addition of small quantities of the dopants diethylamine, triethylamine, and pinacolyl methylphosphonate in the vapor stream. Detection of the tributyl phosphate vapor emanating from these solutions demonstrated a linear range for the protonated tributyl phosphate species of 1-1000 ppb from solution. The clusters of tributyl phosphate with diethylamine, triethylamine, and pinacolyl phosphonate each yielded linear ranges of 1-250 ppb for tributyl phosphate in solution. Despite smaller linear ranges, the addition of these dopant species added a layer of analytical selectivity and reduced variability in signals from quality control samples. These data were obtained using an atmospheric flow tube source coupled to a linear ion trap mass spectrometer, which demonstrates the applicability of trapping systems to the atmospheric flow tube ionization technique while monitoring positive ions.

Characterization of alkylphosphonic acid vapors using atmospheric flow tube-ion trap mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

A key aspect of detecting hazardous compounds at ultra-trace levels for processing, compliance, and clean-up purposes involves developing methods that are not only sensitive, but also highly selective with minimal sampling effort. Atmospheric flow tube mass spectrometry (AFT-MS) using dielectric barrier discharge ionization has emerged as a technique that combines such features for vapor detection. AFT-MS is thus appealing for application to ambient screening for chemical warfare agents (CWAs) and their degradation products. Initial characterization of AFT-MS for CWA detection necessitates examining less harmful simulant species. A predominant hydrolysis product of most organophosphorus CWAs is methylphosphonic acid and most other hydrolysis products consist of some form of an alkylphosphonic acid.

METHODS

An application of AFT-MS is presented wherein a homologous series of four alkylphosphonic acids (methyl-, ethyl-, propyl-, and t-butylphosphonic acid) were first qualitatively evaluated as anionic clusters with nitrate. These anionic adducts were subsequently quantified from non-equilibrium headspace vapor sampled over alkylphosphonic acid solutions in methanol.

RESULTS

The series of phosphonic acids demonstrated consistent relative ion abundances thought to be related at least in part to the relative vapor pressures depending on their alkyl chains. For quantitation, the resulting linear ranges were found to be 2 to 50 ppm_soln for methylphosphonic acid, 5 to 50 ppm_soln for ethylphosphonic acid, and 2 to 25 ppm_soln for propylphosphonic acid and t-butylphosphonic acid; quality controls of 15 ppm_soln were used to assess the quantitation accuracy.

CONCLUSIONS

Although measured over a limited dynamic range, the real-time analysis afforded by this method suggests the feasibility of using thermodynamically stable anionic adducts to monitor organophosphorus compounds via AFT-MS. In addition, this is proof-of-concept for the use of this ambient sensing technique to detect phosphonic acids. Furthermore, a discussion is included regarding gaps in clustering thermodynamics literature that would assist in uncovering physical or chemical explanations for observed trends.

Selective Reagent Ions for the Direct Vapor Detection of Organophosphorus Compounds Below Parts-per-Trillion Levels

Real-time low to sub parts-per-trillion (ppt_v) vapor detection of some organophosphorous compounds (OPCs) is demonstrated with an atmospheric flow tube-mass spectrometer. The chemical species investigated included dimethyl methylphosphonate, triethyl phosphate, and tributylphosphate. The atmospheric flow tube provides ambient chemical ionization with up to several seconds of ionization time. With sensitivities in the parts-per-quadrillion (ppq_v) range, there are many background contaminants competing for charge with the target analytes. Initially, the OPCs were not observable in direct room air analysis, presumably due to other trace components possessing higher proton affinities. However, the addition of a trialkylamine as a dopant chemical served to provide a single reagent ion that also formed a proton-bound heterodimer with the OPCs. These asymmetric proton-bound dimers had sufficiently high hydrogen bond energy to allow the cluster to remain intact during the analysis time of several seconds. Changes in stability were observed for some of these asymmetric proton-bound dimers with a shorter half-life for adducts with a larger proton affinity differences between the amine and the OPC. Detection levels approaching low ppt_v to high ppq_v were correlated by three different methods, including use of a permeation tube, direct injection of a fixed mass into the sample air flow, and calculations based upon signal intensity ratios, reaction time, and an estimated reaction rate constant. A practical demonstration showed real-time monitoring of a laboratory environment initially with low ppt_v levels of vapor observed to decay exponentially over about an hour while returning to baseline levels.