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Ma L, Sun T, Liu Y, Zhao Y, Liu X, Li Y, Chen X, Cao L, Kang Q, Guo J, Du L, Wang W, Li S. Enzymatic synthesis of indigo derivatives by tuning P450 BM3 peroxygenases. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2023; 8:452-461. [PMID: 37448528 PMCID: PMC10336827 DOI: 10.1016/j.synbio.2023.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Indigoids, a class of bis-indoles, have long been applied in dyeing, food, and pharmaceutical industries. Recently, interest in these 'old' molecules has been renewed in the field of organic semiconductors as functional building blocks for organic electronics due to their excellent chemical and physical properties. However, these indigo derivatives are difficult to access through chemical synthesis. In this study, we engineer cytochrome P450 BM3 from an NADPH-dependent monooxygenase to peroxygenases through directed evolution. A select number of P450 BM3 variants are used for the selective oxidation of indole derivatives to form different indigoid pigments with a spectrum of colors. Among the prepared indigoid organic photocatalysts, a majority of indigoids demonstrate a reduced band gap than indigo due to the increased light capture and improved charge separation, making them promising candidates for the development of new organic electronic devices. Thus, we present a useful enzymatic approach with broad substrate scope and cost-effectiveness by using low-cost H2O2 as a cofactor for the preparation of diversified indigoids, offering versatility in designing and manufacturing new dyestuff and electronic/sensor components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Tianjian Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yunjie Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yue Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Xiaohui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yuxuan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Xinwei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Lin Cao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Qianqian Kang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Jiawei Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Lei Du
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Wei Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Shengying Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China
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2
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Abstract
Ambipolar transistor properties have been observed in various small-molecule materials. Since a small energy gap is necessary, many types of molecular designs including extended π-skeletons as well as the incorporation of donor and acceptor units have been attempted. In addition to the energy levels, an inert passivation layer is important to observe ambipolar transistor properties. Ambipolar transport has been observed in extraordinary π-electron systems such as antiaromatic compounds, biradicals, radicals, metal complexes, and hydrogen-bonded materials. Several donor/acceptor cocrystals show ambipolar transport as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiki Higashino
- Research Institute for Advanced Electronics and Photonics, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565, Japan.
| | - Takehiko Mori
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, O-okayama 2-12-1, Meguro-ku, 152-8552, Japan.
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Bützer P, Brühwiler D, Bützer MR, Al-Godari N, Cadalbert M, Giger M, Schär S. Indigo-A New Tribological Substance Class for Non-Toxic and Ecological Gliding Surfaces on Ice, Snow, and Water. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15030883. [PMID: 35160831 PMCID: PMC8837992 DOI: 10.3390/ma15030883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The biogenic substance E-indigo can form supramolecular, hydrophobic structures using self-organization. These structures show a low coefficient of friction as a gliding layer against polar surfaces. The formation of primary particles with platelet morphology based on hydrogen-bonded E-indigo molecules is ideal to produce the gliding layer. Structures with excellent gliding properties can be achieved by means of directed friction and high pressure, as well as through tempering. The resulting hard, thin gliding layer of E-indigo does not easily absorb dirt and, thus, prevents a rapid increase in friction. Field tests on snow, with cross-country skis, have shown promising results in comparison to fluorinated and non-fluorinated waxes. Based on quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) data for E-indigo, and its isomers and tautomers, it has been demonstrated that both the application and abrasion of the thin indigo layers are harmless to health, and are ecologically benign and, therefore, sustainable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Bützer
- Isantin GmbH, 9450 Altstätten, Switzerland;
- Correspondence: (P.B.); (D.B.)
| | - Dominik Brühwiler
- Institute of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Zürich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland; (N.A.-G.); (M.C.); (M.G.); (S.S.)
- Correspondence: (P.B.); (D.B.)
| | | | - Nassim Al-Godari
- Institute of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Zürich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland; (N.A.-G.); (M.C.); (M.G.); (S.S.)
| | - Michelle Cadalbert
- Institute of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Zürich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland; (N.A.-G.); (M.C.); (M.G.); (S.S.)
| | - Mathias Giger
- Institute of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Zürich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland; (N.A.-G.); (M.C.); (M.G.); (S.S.)
| | - Sandro Schär
- Institute of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Zürich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland; (N.A.-G.); (M.C.); (M.G.); (S.S.)
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Salzillo T, Giunchi A, Pandolfi L, Brillante A, Venuti E. Bulk and Surface‐Mediated Polymorphs of Bio‐Inspired Dyes Organic Semiconductors: The Role of Lattice Phonons in their Investigation. Isr J Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.202100067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Salzillo
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics Weizmann Institute of Science Herzl Street 234 76100 Rehovot Israel
| | - Andrea Giunchi
- Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”, and INSTM-UdR Bologna Università di Bologna Viale del Risorgimento 4 Bologna 40136 Italy
| | - Lorenzo Pandolfi
- Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”, and INSTM-UdR Bologna Università di Bologna Viale del Risorgimento 4 Bologna 40136 Italy
| | - Aldo Brillante
- Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”, and INSTM-UdR Bologna Università di Bologna Viale del Risorgimento 4 Bologna 40136 Italy
| | - Elisabetta Venuti
- Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”, and INSTM-UdR Bologna Università di Bologna Viale del Risorgimento 4 Bologna 40136 Italy
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5
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Higashino T, Ueda A, Mori H. Di- and tetramethoxy benzothienobenzothiophenes: substitution position effects on the intermolecular interactions, crystal packing and transistor properties. NEW J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c8nj04251a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The relationship between the structure and transistor properties of novel benzothienobenzothiophene (BTBT) derivatives with 2,3-dimethoxy and 2,3,7,8-tetramethoxy groups was investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiki Higashino
- The Institute for Solid State Physics
- The University of Tokyo
- Kashiwa
- Japan
| | - Akira Ueda
- The Institute for Solid State Physics
- The University of Tokyo
- Kashiwa
- Japan
| | - Hatsumi Mori
- The Institute for Solid State Physics
- The University of Tokyo
- Kashiwa
- Japan
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6
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Amdursky N, Głowacki ED, Meredith P. Macroscale Biomolecular Electronics and Ionics. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2019; 31:e1802221. [PMID: 30334284 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201802221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2018] [Revised: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The conduction of ions and electrons over multiple length scales is central to the processes that drive the biological world. The multidisciplinary attempts to elucidate the physics and chemistry of electron, proton, and ion transfer in biological charge transfer have focused primarily on the nano- and microscales. However, recently significant progress has been made on biomolecular materials that can support ion and electron currents over millimeters if not centimeters. Likewise, similar transport phenomena in organic semiconductors and ionics have led to new innovations in a wide variety of applications from energy generation and storage to displays and bioelectronics. Here, the underlying principles of conduction on the macroscale in biomolecular materials are discussed, highlighting recent examples, and particularly the establishment of accurate structure-property relationships to guide rationale material and device design. The technological viability of biomolecular electronics and ionics is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadav Amdursky
- Schulich Faculty of Chemistry, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 3200003, Israel
| | - Eric Daniel Głowacki
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Bredgatan 33, SE-60174, Norrköping, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Linköping University, 58183, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Paul Meredith
- Department of Physics, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, Wales, UK
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7
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Black HT, Yee N, Zems Y, Perepichka DF. Complementary Hydrogen Bonding Modulates Electronic Properties and Controls Self-Assembly of Donor/Acceptor Semiconductors. Chemistry 2016; 22:17251-17261. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201602543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H. T. Black
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Self-Assembled Chemical Structures; McGill University; Montreal Qc H3A 0B8 Canada
- Organic Materials Department; Sandia National Laboratories; Albuquerque NM 87185 USA
| | - N. Yee
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Self-Assembled Chemical Structures; McGill University; Montreal Qc H3A 0B8 Canada
| | - Y. Zems
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Self-Assembled Chemical Structures; McGill University; Montreal Qc H3A 0B8 Canada
| | - D. F. Perepichka
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Self-Assembled Chemical Structures; McGill University; Montreal Qc H3A 0B8 Canada
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8
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Removal of toxic indigo blue with integrated biomaterials of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose and chitosan. Int J Biol Macromol 2016; 91:409-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.05.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Revised: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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9
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Nicholls-Allison EC, Nawn G, Patrick BO, Hicks RG. Protoisomerization of indigo di- and monoimines. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 51:12482-5. [PMID: 26146012 DOI: 10.1039/c5cc04492h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Indigo di- and monoimines can be protonated to form stable salts in which the central C=C bond has isomerized from a trans to cis configuration. Deprotonation of these salts regenerates the neutral trans species. The protonation chemistry of indigo is also explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma C Nicholls-Allison
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, PO Box 3065 STN CSC, Victoria BC V8W 3V6, Canada.
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10
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Bazaka K, Jacob MV, Ostrikov KK. Sustainable Life Cycles of Natural-Precursor-Derived Nanocarbons. Chem Rev 2015; 116:163-214. [PMID: 26717047 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Sustainable societal and economic development relies on novel nanotechnologies that offer maximum efficiency at minimal environmental cost. Yet, it is very challenging to apply green chemistry approaches across the entire life cycle of nanotech products, from design and nanomaterial synthesis to utilization and disposal. Recently, novel, efficient methods based on nonequilibrium reactive plasma chemistries that minimize the process steps and dramatically reduce the use of expensive and hazardous reagents have been applied to low-cost natural and waste sources to produce value-added nanomaterials with a wide range of applications. This review discusses the distinctive effects of nonequilibrium reactive chemistries and how these effects can aid and advance the integration of sustainable chemistry into each stage of nanotech product life. Examples of the use of enabling plasma-based technologies in sustainable production and degradation of nanotech products are discussed-from selection of precursors derived from natural resources and their conversion into functional building units, to methods for green synthesis of useful naturally degradable carbon-based nanomaterials, to device operation and eventual disintegration into naturally degradable yet potentially reusable byproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateryna Bazaka
- Institute for Future Environments, School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia.,Electronics Materials Lab, College of Science, Technology and Engineering, James Cook University , Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia.,CSIRO-QUT Joint Sustainable Materials and Devices Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization , P.O. Box 218, Lindfield, New South Wales 2070, Australia
| | - Mohan V Jacob
- Electronics Materials Lab, College of Science, Technology and Engineering, James Cook University , Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Kostya Ken Ostrikov
- Institute for Future Environments, School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia.,CSIRO-QUT Joint Sustainable Materials and Devices Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization , P.O. Box 218, Lindfield, New South Wales 2070, Australia.,School of Physics, The University of Sydney , Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
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11
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12
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Kim R, Kang B, Sin DH, Choi HH, Kwon SK, Kim YH, Cho K. Oligo(ethylene glycol)-incorporated hybrid linear alkyl side chains for n-channel polymer semiconductors and their effect on the thin-film crystalline structure. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015; 51:1524-7. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cc08381d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Oligo(ethylene glycol)-incorporated hybrid linear alkyl side chains, serving as solubilizing groups, are designed and introduced into naphthalene-diimide-based n-channel copolymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Kim
- Department of Chemistry and RINS
- Gyeongsang National University
- Jinju
- Korea
| | - Boseok Kang
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) and Center for Advanced Soft Electronics (CASE)
- Pohang 790-784
- Korea
| | - Dong Hun Sin
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) and Center for Advanced Soft Electronics (CASE)
- Pohang 790-784
- Korea
| | - Hyun Ho Choi
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) and Center for Advanced Soft Electronics (CASE)
- Pohang 790-784
- Korea
| | - Soon-Ki Kwon
- School of Materials Science & Engineering and ERI
- Gyeongsang National University
- Jinju
- Korea
| | - Yun-Hi Kim
- School of Materials Science & Engineering and ERI
- Gyeongsang National University
- Jinju
- Korea
| | - Kilwon Cho
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) and Center for Advanced Soft Electronics (CASE)
- Pohang 790-784
- Korea
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13
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Sytnyk M, Głowacki ED, Yakunin S, Voss G, Schöfberger W, Kriegner D, Stangl J, Trotta R, Gollner C, Tollabimazraehno S, Romanazzi G, Bozkurt Z, Havlicek M, Sariciftci NS, Heiss W. Hydrogen-bonded organic semiconductor micro- and nanocrystals: from colloidal syntheses to (opto-)electronic devices. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:16522-32. [PMID: 25253644 PMCID: PMC4277760 DOI: 10.1021/ja5073965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Organic pigments such as indigos, quinacridones, and phthalocyanines are widely produced industrially as colorants for everyday products as various as cosmetics and printing inks. Herein we introduce a general procedure to transform commercially available insoluble microcrystalline pigment powders into colloidal solutions of variously sized and shaped semiconductor micro- and nanocrystals. The synthesis is based on the transformation of the pigments into soluble dyes by introducing transient protecting groups on the secondary amine moieties, followed by controlled deprotection in solution. Three deprotection methods are demonstrated: thermal cleavage, acid-catalyzed deprotection, and amine-induced deprotection. During these processes, ligands are introduced to afford colloidal stability and to provide dedicated surface functionality and for size and shape control. The resulting micro- and nanocrystals exhibit a wide range of optical absorption and photoluminescence over spectral regions from the visible to the near-infrared. Due to excellent colloidal solubility offered by the ligands, the achieved organic nanocrystals are suitable for solution processing of (opto)electronic devices. As examples, phthalocyanine nanowire transistors as well as quinacridone nanocrystal photodetectors, with photoresponsivity values by far outperforming those of vacuum deposited reference samples, are demonstrated. The high responsivity is enabled by photoinduced charge transfer between the nanocrystals and the directly attached electron-accepting vitamin B2 ligands. The semiconducting nanocrystals described here offer a cheap, nontoxic, and environmentally friendly alternative to inorganic nanocrystals as well as a new paradigm for obtaining organic semiconductor materials from commercial colorants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mykhailo Sytnyk
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Eric Daniel Głowacki
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Sergii Yakunin
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Gundula Voss
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Schöfberger
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Dominik Kriegner
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Julian Stangl
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Rinaldo Trotta
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Claudia Gollner
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Sajjad Tollabimazraehno
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Giuseppe Romanazzi
- Dipartimento
di Ingegneria Civile, Ambientale, del Territorio, Edile e di Chimica
(DICATECh), Politecnico di Bari, Via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Zeynep Bozkurt
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Marek Havlicek
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Niyazi Serdar Sariciftci
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Heiss
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Linz Institute for Organic
Solar Cells
(LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry, and Zentrum für Oberflächen
und Nanoanalytik, Johannes Kepler University
Linz, Altenberger Straße
69, 4040 Linz, Austria
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