In Situ Kinetic Observations on Crystal Nucleation and Growth

Nucleation and growth are critical steps in crystallization, which plays an important role in determining crystal structure, size, morphology, and purity. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of nucleation and growth is crucial to realize the controllable fabrication of crystalline products with desired and reproducible properties. Based on classical models, the initial crystal nucleus is formed by the spontaneous aggregation of ions, atoms, or molecules, and crystal growth is dependent on the monomer's diffusion and the surface reaction. Recently, numerous in situ investigations on crystallization dynamics have uncovered the existence of nonclassical mechanisms. This review provides a summary and highlights the in situ studies of crystal nucleation and growth, with a particular emphasis on the state-of-the-art research progress since the year 2016, and includes technological advances, atomic-scale observations, substrate- and temperature-dependent nucleation and growth, and the progress achieved in the various materials: metals, alloys, metallic compounds, colloids, and proteins. Finally, the forthcoming opportunities and challenges in this fascinating field are discussed.

Metallosupramolecular polymers as precursors for platinum nanocomposites

Nanocomposites comprised of a polymer matrix and metallic nanoparticles (NPs) can merge the structural features of the matrix material with the functional characteristics of the NPs. While such materials are...

One-pot synthesis of Au-based nanocrystals via a platinum group metal anion controlled growth strategy in citrate medium

Finding a facile manufacturing method of Au-based low PGM content nanocrystals by exploring the reaction process of a series of PGM anions with the in situ Au NW templates.

Platinum Based Nanoparticles Produced by a Pulsed Spark Discharge as a Promising Material for Gas Sensors

We have applied spark ablation technology for producing nanoparticles from platinum ingots (purity of 99.97 wt. %) as a feed material by using air as a carrier gas. A maximum production rate of about 400 mg/h was achieved with an energy per pulse of 0.5 J and a pulse repetition rate of 250 Hz. The synthesized nanomaterial, composed of an amorphous platinum oxide PtO (83 wt. %) and a crystalline metallic platinum (17 wt. %), was used for formulating functional colloidal ink. Annealing of the deposited ink at 750 °C resulted in the formation of a polycrystalline material comprising 99.7 wt. % of platinum. To demonstrate the possibility of application of the formulated ink in printed electronics, we have patterned conductive lines and microheaters on alumina substrates and 20 μm thick low-temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) membranes with the use of aerosol jet printing technology. The power consumption of microheaters fabricated on LTCC membranes was found to be about 140 mW at a temperature of the hot part of 500 °C, thus allowing one to consider these structures as promising micro-hotplates for metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) gas sensors. The catalytic activity of the synthesized nanoparticles was demonstrated by measuring the resistance transients of the non-sintered microheaters upon exposure to 2500 ppm of hydrogen.

From platinum atoms in molecules to colloidal nanoparticles: A review on reduction, nucleation and growth mechanisms

Platinum (Pt) is one of the most studied materials in catalysis today and considered for a wide range of applications: chemical synthesis, energy conversion, air treatment, water purification, sensing, medicine etc. As a limited and non-renewable resource, optimized used of Pt is key. Nanomaterial design offers multiple opportunities to make the most of Pt resources down to the atomic scale. In particular, colloidal syntheses of Pt nanoparticles are well documented and simple to implement, which accounts for the large interest in research and development. For further breakthroughs in the design of Pt nanomaterials, a deeper understanding of the intricate synthesis-structures-properties relations of Pt nanoparticles must be obtained. Understanding how Pt nanoparticles form from molecular precursors is both a challenging and rewarding area of investigation. It is directly relevant to develop improved Pt nanomaterials but is also a source of inspiration to design other precious metal nanostructures. Here, we review the current understanding of Pt nanoparticle formation. This review is aimed at readers with interest in Pt nanoparticles in general and their colloidal syntheses in particular. Readers with a strongest interest on the study of nanomaterial formation will find here the case study of Pt. The preferred model systems and characterization techniques used to perform the study of Pt nanoparticle syntheses are discussed. In light of recent achievements, further direction and areas of research are proposed.

Ionic Conductivity Measurements-A Powerful Tool for Monitoring Polyol Reduction Reactions

The reduction of metal precursors during the polyol synthesis of metal nanoparticles was monitored by ex situ ionic conductivity measurements. Using commonly used platinum precursors (K₂PtCl₆, H₂PtCl₆, and K₂PtCl₄) as well as iridium and ruthenium precursors (IrCl₃ and RuCl₃), we demonstrate that their reduction in ethylene glycol at elevated temperatures is accompanied by a predictable change in ionic conductivity, enabling a precise quantification of the onset temperature for their reduction. This method also allows detecting the onset temperature for the further reaction of ethylene glycol with HCl produced by the reduction of chloride-containing metal precursors (at ≈120 °C). On the basis of these findings, we show that the conversion of the metal precursor to reduced metal atoms/clusters can be precisely quantified, if the reaction occurs below 120 °C, which also enables a distinction between the stages of metal particle nucleation and growth. The latter is demonstrated by the reduction of H₂PtCl₆ in ethylene glycol, comparing ionic conductivity measurements with transmission electron microscopy analysis. In summary, ionic conductivity measurements are a simple and straightforward tool to quantify the reduction kinetics of commonly used metal precursors in the polyol synthesis.

Insight into growth of Au-Pt bimetallic nanoparticles: an in situ XAS study

Au-Pt bimetallic nanoparticles have been synthesized through a one-pot synthesis route from their respective chloride precursors using block copolymer as a stabilizer. Growth of the nanoparticles has been studied by simultaneous in situ measurement of X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and UV-Vis spectroscopy at the energy-dispersive EXAFS beamline (BL-08) at Indus-2 SRS at RRCAT, Indore, India. In situ XAS spectra, comprising both X-ray near-edge structure (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine-structure (EXAFS) parts, have been measured simultaneously at the Au and Pt L₃-edges. While the XANES spectra of the precursors provide real-time information on the reduction process, the EXAFS spectra reveal the structure of the clusters formed in the intermediate stages of growth. This insight into the formation process throws light on how the difference in the reduction potential of the two precursors could be used to obtain the core-shell-type configuration of a bimetallic alloy in a one-pot synthesis method. The core-shell-type structure of the nanoparticles has also been confirmed by ex situ energy-dispersive spectroscopy line-scan and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements with in situ ion etching on fully formed nanoparticles.

Controlled growth of metallic copper nanoparticles

We report a polyol synthesis method that provides controlled growth of chemically stable Cu nanoparticles with mean diameter easily tuned to lie below 10 nm.

Room temperature photo-induced deposition of platinum mirrors and nano-layers from simple Pt(ii) precursor complexes in water–methanol solutions

Mirror-like nano-layers of variable thicknesses can be deposited directly onto FTO glass at room temperature under continuous irradiation with polychromatic light from water/methanol solutions containing low concentrations of [PtCl₄]²⁻.

Growth of block copolymer stabilized metal nanoparticles probed simultaneously by in situ XAS and UV-Vis spectroscopy

The growth of Au and Pt nanoparticles from their respective chloride precursors using block copolymer-based reducers has been studied by simultaneous in situ measurement of XAS and UV-Vis spectroscopy at the energy-dispersive EXAFS beamline (BL-08) at INDUS-2 SRS at RRCAT, Indore, India. While the XANES spectra of the precursor give real-time information on the reduction process, the EXAFS spectra reveal the structure of the clusters formed at the intermediate stages of growth. The growth kinetics of both types of nanoparticles are found to be almost similar and are found to follow three stages, though the first stage of nucleation takes place earlier in the case of Au than in the case of Pt nanoparticles due to the difference in the reduction potential of the respective precursors. The first two stages of the growth of Au and Pt nanoparticles as obtained by in situ XAS measurements could be corroborated by simultaneous in situ measurement of UV-Vis spectroscopy also.

Potentiometric in Situ Monitoring of Anions in the Synthesis of Copper and Silver Nanoparticles Using the Polyol Process

Potentiometric sensors, such as polymeric membrane, ion-selective electrodes (ISEs), have been used in the past to monitor a variety of chemical processes. However, the use of these sensors has traditionally been limited to aqueous solutions and moderate temperatures. Here we present an ISE with a high-capacity ion-exchange sensing membrane for measurements of nitrate and nitrite in the organic solvent propylene glycol at 150 °C. It is capable of continuously measuring under these conditions for over 180 h. We demonstrate the usefulness of this sensor by in situ monitoring of anion concentrations during the synthesis of copper and silver nanoparticles in propylene glycol using the polyol method. Ion chromatography and a colorimetric method were used to independently confirm anion concentrations measured in situ. In doing so, it was shown that in this reaction the co-ion nitrate is reduced to nitrite.

A dispenser-reactor apparatus applied for in situ XAS monitoring of Pt nanoparticle formation

In situ time-resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) measurements collected at the Pt L3-edge during the synthesis of Pt nanoparticles (NPs) in aqueous solution are reported. A specially designed dispenser-reactor apparatus allowed for monitoring changes in the XAS spectra from the earliest moments of Pt ions in solution until the formation of metallic nanoparticles with a mean diameter of 4.9 ± 1.1 nm. By monitoring the changes in the local chemical environment of the Pt atoms in real time, it was possible to observe that the NPs formation kinetics involved two stages: a reduction-nucleation burst followed by a slow growth and stabilization of NPs. Subsequently, the synthesized Pt NPs were supported on activated carbon and characterized by synchrotron-radiation-excited X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS). The supported Pt NPs remained in the metallic chemical state and with a reduced size, presenting slight lattice parameter contraction in comparison with the bulk Pt values.