Copper(I)- and copper(0)-promoted homocoupling and homocoupling-hydrodehalogenation reactions of dihalogenoclathrochelate precursors for C-C conjugated iron(II) bis-cage complexes

Expanding manganese(IV) aqueous chemistry: unusually stable water-soluble hexahydrazide clathrochelate complexes

Mn cage complexes are rare, and the ones successfully isolated in the solid state are not stable in water and organic solvents. Herein, we present the first report of mononuclear Mn clathrochelates, in which the encapsulated metal exists in the oxidation state +4. The complexes are extremely stable in the crystalline state and in solutions and show rich redox chemistry.

Fluorinated Iron(ii) clathrochelate units in metalorganic based copolymers: improved porosity, iodine uptake, and dye adsorption properties

We report the synthesis of metalorganic copolymers made from the palladium catalyzed Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction between various iron(ii) clathrochelate building blocks with diethynyl-triptycene and fluorene derivatives. The target copolymers CCP1-5 were isolated in excellent yield and characterized by various instrumental analysis techniques. Interestingly, investigation of the copolymers' porosity properties discloses BET surface areas up to 337 m2 g-1 for the target compounds bearing fluorinated iron(ii) clathrochelate units CCP2,5. Moreover, the fluorinated copolymers display an outstanding uptake capacity of iodine with a maximum adsorption of 200 wt%. The target metalorganic copolymers CCP1-5 reveal very good adsorption of organic dyes, namely, methyl blue and methylene blue, from aqueous media.

Synthesis and spectral characterization of the first fluorescein-tagged iron(ii) clathrochelates, their supramolecular interactions with globular proteins, and cellular uptake

A fluorescein-tagged iron(ii) cage complex was obtained in a moderate total yield using a two-step synthetic procedure starting from its propargylamine-containing clathrochelate precursor. An 11-fold decrease in fluorescence quantum yield is observed in passing from the given fluorescein-based dye to its clathrochelate derivative. An excitation energy transfer from the terminal fluorescent group of the macrobicyclic molecule to its quasiaromatic highly π-conjugated clathrochelate framework can explain this effect. The kinetics of the hydrolysis of the acetyl groups of acetylated fluorescein azide and its clathrochelate derivative in the presence of one equivalent of BSA evidenced no strong supramolecular host-guest interactions between BSA and the tested compounds. Study of a chemical stability of the deacetylated iron(ii) clathrochelate suggested the formation of a supramolecular 1 : 1 BSA-clathrochelate assembly. Moreover, an addition of BSA or HSA to its solution caused the appearance of strong clathrochelate-based ICD outputs. The fluorescence emission anisotropy studies also evidenced the supramolecular binding of the fluorescein-tagged iron(ii) clathrochelate to the BSA macromolecule, leading to a high increase in this type of anisotropy. Subcellular uptake of the fluorescein-tagged molecules was visualized using fluorescence microscopy and showed its distribution to be mainly in the cytosol without entering the nucleus or accumulating in any other organelle. An X-rayed crystal of the above propargylamide macrobicyclic precursor with a reactive terminal C[triple bond, length as m-dash]C bond contains the clathrochelate molecules of two types, A and B. The encapsulated iron(ii) ion in these molecules is situated in the center of its FeN6-coordination polyhedron, the geometry of which is intermediate between a trigonal prism (TP) and a trigonal antiprism (TAP). The Fe-N distances vary from 1.8754(6) to 1.9286(4) Å and the heights h of their distorted TP-TAP polyhedra are very similar (2.30 and 2.31 Å); their values of φ are equal to 25.3 and 26.6°. In this crystal, the molecules of types A and B participate in different types of hydrogen bonding, giving H-bonded clathrochelate tetramers through their carboxylic and amide groups, respectively; these tetramers are connected to H-bonded chains.

Induced CD of iron(ii) clathrochelates: sensing of the structural and conformational alterations of serum albumins

An ability of inherently achiral macrobicyclic metal complexes iron(ii) clathrochelates to acquire an induced CD (ICD) output in the visible spectral range upon interaction with bovine serum albumin (BSA) was recently discovered. In the present work, the CD-reporting properties of iron(ii) clathrochelates to proteins and the thermodynamic parameters of their binding to albumins are evaluated. It is shown that iron(ii) clathrochelates functionalized by six ribbed carboxyphenylsulfide groups are able to discriminate between serum albumins of relative structure (here human and bovine albumins) by giving distinct ICD spectra. Besides, by the variation of the shape and intensity of CD bands, these cage metal complexes reflect the pH-triggered alterations of the tertiary structure of albumins. The constitutional isomerism (ortho-, meta- or para-isomers) of terminal carboxyphenylsulfide groups of iron(ii) clathrochelates strongly affects both the character of their ICD output upon binding with proteins and the parameters of the formed guest-host associates. Using isothermal titration calorimetry, it was determined that cage metal complexes bearing meta- and ortho-isomers of carboxyphenylsulfide groups possess higher association constants (Ka ∼ 2 × 104 M-1) and clathrochelate-to-BSA binding ratios (n = 2) than the para-isomer (Ka ∼ 5 × 103 M-1, n = 1). The iron(ii) clathrochelates are suggested to be potential molecular three-dimensional scaffolds for the design of CD-sensitive reporters able to recognize specific elements of protein surfaces.

Induced chirality of cage metal complexes switched by their supramolecular and covalent binding

An ability of the ribbed-functionalized iron(ii) clathrochelates to induce a CD output in interactions with a protein, covalent bonding or supramolecular interactions with a low-molecular-weight chiral inductor, was discovered. The interactions of CD inactive, carboxyl-terminated iron(ii) clathrochelates with serum albumin induced their molecular asymmetry, causing an appearance of strong CD signals in the range of 350-600 nm, whereas methyl ester and amide clathrochelate derivatives remained almost CD inactive. The CD spectra of carboxyl-terminated clathrochelates on supramolecular interactions or covalent bonding with (R)-(+)-1-phenylethylamine gave a substantially lower CD output than with albumin, affected by both the solvent polarity and the isomerism of clathrochelate's ribbed substituents. In supramolecular assemblies, the bands were most intensive for ortho-substituted carboxyl-terminated clathrochelates. The ortho- and meta-phenylethylamide cage complexes in tetrachloromethane inverted the signs of their CD bands compared with those in acetonitrile. It was suggested that the tris-dioximate metal clathrochelates possess a Russian doll-like molecular system. Because of the distorted TP-TAP geometry, their coordination polyhedron had no inversion centre and possessed an inherent chirality together with the equiprobability of its left(Λ)- and right(Δ)-handle twists. The selective fixation of one of these C₃-distorted conformations resulted in the appearance of the CD signal in the range of their visible metal-to-ligand charge transfer bands. Calculations by DFT methods were used to illustrate the possible conformations of the macrobicyclic molecules, as well as the intramolecular interactions between the cage framework and optically active distal substituents responsible for the chirality induction of the metal-centred coordination polyhedra.

Synthesis and characterization of an Fe(i) cage complex with high stability towards strong H-acids

The new iron(i) dioximate showed an unrivaled stability towards strong acids. This calls for a reassessment of the electrocatalytic activity of similar low-valent Co and Fe cage complexes, which have shown to be effective HER electrocatalysts.

Extension and functionalization of an encapsulating macrobicyclic ligand using palladium-catalyzed Suzuki–Miyaura and Sonogashira reactions of iron(ii) dihalogenoclathrochelates with inherent halogen substituents

A new approach for performing Suzuki–Miyaura and Sonogashira reactions of iron(ii) dihalogenoclathrochelates, optimizing their reaction conditions (such as temperature, solvent and a palladium-containing catalyst) and the nature of other reagents (such as arylboron components) is elaborated. These palladium-catalyzed reactions are very sensitive to the nature of the macrobicyclic substrates. The reactivity of the leaving halogen atoms correlates with their ability to undergo an oxidative addition, decreasing in the order: I > Br > Cl, and iron(ii) diiodoclathrochelate underwent these C–C cross-couplings under their “classical” conditions. Phenylboronic, 4-carboxyphenylboronic and 6-ethoxy-2-naphthylboronic acids, and the diethyl ether of 4-(ethoxycarbonyl)boronic acid were tested as components of Suzuki–Miyaura reactions in DMF and in THF. The highest yields of the target products were obtained in DMF, while the highest activation was observed with sodium and potassium carbonates. The Suzuki–Miyaura reaction of a diiodoclathrochelate with 6-ethoxy-2-naphthylboronic acid gave the mono- and difunctionalized clathrochelates resulting from the tandem hydrodeiodination – C–C cross-coupling and double C–C cross-coupling reactions, respectively. Its Sonogashira reactions with trimethylsilylacetylene and acetylenecarboxylic acid in THF and in DMF were tested. This palladium-catalyzed reaction with a (CH₃)₃Si-containing active component gave the target products in a high total yield. The complexes obtained were characterized using elemental analysis, MALDI-TOF, UV-Vis, ¹H and ¹³C{¹H} NMR spectroscopy, and by single crystal XRD. Despite the non-equivalence of the ribbed α-dioximate fragments of their molecules, the encapsulated iron(ii) ion is situated almost in the centre of its FeN₆-coordination polyhedron, the geometry of which is almost intermediate between a trigonal prism and a trigonal antiprism.

A new approach for performing Suzuki and Sonogashira reactions of iron(ii) dihalogenoclathrochelates, optimizing their reaction conditions, is elaborated.

The molecular design of cage metal complexes for biological applications: pathways of the synthesis, and X-ray structures of a series of new N2-, S2- and O2-alicyclic iron(ii) di- and tetrachloroclathrochelates

New iron(ii) di- and tetrahalogenoclathrochelates with apical functionalizing substituents were prepared and characterized.

Metal-Involving Synthesis and Reactions of Oximes

This review classifies and summarizes the past 10-15 years of advancements in the field of metal-involving (i.e., metal-mediated and metal-catalyzed) reactions of oximes. These reactions are diverse in nature and have been employed for syntheses of oxime-based metal complexes and cage-compounds, oxime functionalizations, and the preparation of new classes of organic species, in particular, a wide variety of heterocyclic systems spanning small 3-membered ring systems to macroheterocycles. This consideration gives a general outlook of reaction routes, mechanisms, and driving forces and underlines the potential of metal-involving conversions of oxime species for application in various fields of chemistry and draws attention to the emerging putative targets.

First iron and cobalt(II) hexabromoclathrochelates: structural, magnetic, redox, and electrocatalytic behavior

Template condensation of dibromoglyoxime with n-butylboronic acid on the corresponding metal ion as a matrix under vigorous reaction conditions afforded iron and cobalt(ii) hexabromoclathrochelates. The paramagnetic cobalt clathrochelate was found to be a low-spin complex at temperatures below 100 K, with a gradual increase in the effective magnetic moment at higher temperatures due to the temperature 1/2↔3/2 spin crossover and a gap caused by the structure phase transition. The multitemperature X-ray and DSC studies of this complex and its iron(ii)-containing analog also showed temperature structural transitions. The variation of an encapsulated metal ion's radius, electronic structure and spin state caused substantial differences in the geometry of its coordination polyhedron; these differences increase with the decrease in temperature due to Jahn-Teller distortion of the encapsulated cobalt(ii) ion with an electronic configuration d(7). As follows from CV and GC data, these cage iron and cobalt complexes undergo both oxidation and reduction quasireversibly, and showed an electrocatalytic activity for hydrogen production in different producing systems.

Large, heterometallic coordination cages based on ditopic metallo-ligands with 3-pyridyl donor groups

Ditopic N-donor ligands with terminal 4-pyridyl groups are omnipresent in coordination-based self-assembly. The utilization of ligands with 3-pyridyl donor groups is significantly less common, because the intrinsic conformational flexibility of these ligands tends to favor the formation of small aggregates. Here, we show that large Pd6L1212+ cages can be obtained by reaction of Pd(ii) salts with metallo-ligands L bearing terminal 3-pyridyl groups. The easy-to-access metallo-ligands contain an Fe(ii) clathrochelate core. These sterically demanding clathrochelate complexes prevent the formation of smaller aggregates, which is observed for less bulky analogous building blocks. The cages were shown to bind BF4- and BPh4- anions in aqueous solvent mixtures, whilst the lateral size of the clathrochelate significantly affects their guest encapsulation behavior.

Recent advances in biological applications of cage metal complexes

This review highlights advances in biochemical and medical applications of cage metal complexes (clathrochelates) and related polyhedral compounds.