Biodistribution and Biotoxicity Assessment of Fluorescent Conjugated Polymer Dots

Conjugated polymer dots (Pdots) have shown potential in the biomedical fields due to their optical properties and customizable design. However, the limited research on the biotoxicity of Pdots hinders their further application and translation. Lipophilic Pdots are prone to adsorbing specific proteins, leading to targeted tissue accumulation. Therefore, lipophilic fluorescent Pdots (Bare-Pdots) are synthesized using the conjugated polymer poly[2-methoxy-5-(2'-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene] (MEH-PPV) to systematically evaluate their biodistribution and biotoxicity in stem cells, zebrafish embryos, and mice. It is observed that Bare-Pdots are readily internalized by cells and adhered to the embryonic chorion. Additionally, Bare-Pdots exhibit a distinct distribution in brown adipose tissue and heart, closely associated with phagocytosis of capillary endothelial cells involved in lipid metabolism. Notably, injection of Bare-Pdots at 5 mg kg-1 results in dysfunction of brown adipose tissue and an increased risk of obesity 90 days post-injection. Furthermore, hydrophilic COOH-Pdots and NH2-Pdots with reduced lipophilicity are synthesized using amphiphilic ligands. NH2-Pdots show similar distribution but lower biotoxicity compared to Bare-Pdots. Nevertheless, injection of COOH-Pdots at 5 mg kg-1 causes a decrease in white blood cells and renal tubular damage. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing dosage to ensure the safe use of Pdots in preclinical applications.

Leveraging Semiconducting Polymer Nanoparticles for Combination Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has become a promising method for cancer treatment, bringing hope to advanced cancer patients. However, immune-related adverse events caused by immunotherapy also bring heavy burden to patients. Semiconducting polymer nanoparticles (SPNs) as an emerging nanomaterial with high biocompatibility, can eliminate tumors and induce tumor immunogenic cell death through different therapeutic modalities, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and sonodynamic therapy. In addition, SPNs can work as a functional nanocarrier to synergize with a variety of immunomodulators to amplify anti-tumor immune responses. In this review, SPNs-based combination cancer immunotherapy is comprehensively summarized according to the SPNs' therapeutic modalities and the type of loaded immunomodulators. The in-depth understanding of existing SPNs-based therapeutic modalities will hopefully inspire the design of more novel nanomaterials with potent anti-tumor immune effects, and ultimately promote their clinical translation.

Different PEG-PLGA Matrices Influence In Vivo Optical/Photoacoustic Imaging Performance and Biodistribution of NIR-Emitting π-Conjugated Polymer Contrast Agents

The π-conjugated polymer poly[2,6-(4,4-bis-(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-cyclopenta[2,1-b;3,4-b0]-dithiophene)-alt-4,7-(2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)] (PCPDTBT) with deep-red/near-infrared (NIR) absorption and emission has been investigated as a contrast agent for in vivo optical and photoacoustic imaging. PCPDTBT is encapsulated within poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PEG2kDa -PLGA4kDa or PEG5kDa -PLGA55kDa ) micelles or enveloped by the phospholipid, 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (PEG2kDa -DPPE), to investigate the formulation effect on imaging performance, biodistribution, and biocompatibility. Nanoparticles that meet the quality requirements for parenteral administration are generated with similar physicochemical properties. Optical phantom imaging reveals that both PEG-PLGA systems exhibit a 30% higher signal-to-background ratio (SBR) than PEG2kDa -DPPE. This trend cannot be observed in a murine HeLa xenograft model following intravenous administration since dramatic differences in biodistribution are observed. PEG2kDa -PLGA4kDa systems accumulate more rapidly in the liver compared to other formulations and PEG2kDa -DPPE demonstrates a higher tumor localization. Protein content in the "hard" corona differs between formulations (PEG2kDa -DPPE < PEG2kDa -PLGA4kDa < PEG5kDa -PLGA55kDa ), although this observation alone does not explain biodistribution patterns. PEG2kDa -PLGA4kDa systems show the highest photoacoustic amplitude in a phantom, but also a lower signal in the tumor due to differences in biodistribution. This study demonstrates that formulations for conjugated polymer contrast agents can have significant impact on both imaging performance and biodistribution.

Interactions of Alginate-Deferoxamine Conjugates With Blood Components and Their Antioxidation in the Hemoglobin Oxidation Model

While deferoxamine (DFO) has long been used as an FDA-approved iron chelator, its proangiogenesis ability attracts increasing number of research interests. To address its drawbacks such as short plasma half-life and toxicity, polymeric conjugated strategy has been proposed and shown superiority. Owing to intravenous injection and application in blood-related conditions, however, the blood interactions and antioxidation of the DFO-conjugates and the mechanisms underlying these outcomes remain to be elucidated. In this regard, incubating with three different molecular-weight (MW) alginate-DFO conjugates (ADs) red blood cells (RBCs), coagulation system, complement and platelet were investigated. To prove the antioxidant activity of ADs, we used hemoglobin oxidation model in vitro. ADs did not cause RBCs hemolysis while reversible aggregation and normal deformability ability were observed. However, the coagulation time, particularly APTT and TT, were significantly prolonged in a dose-dependent manner, and fibrinogen was dramatically decreased, suggesting ADs could dominantly inhibit the intrinsic pathways in the process of coagulation. The dose-dependent anticoagulation might be related with the functional groups along the alginate chains. The complements, C3a and C5a, were activated by ADs in a dose-dependent manner through alternative pathway. For platelet, ADs slightly suppressed the activation and aggregation at low concentration. Based on above results, the cross-talking among coagulation, complement and platelet induced by ADs was proposed. The antioxidation of ADs through iron chelation was proved and the antioxidant activity was shown in a MW-dependent manner.

Conjugated polymers as nanoparticle probes for fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging

In this review, the role of conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) in emerging bioimaging techniques is described.

In Vivo Optical Performance of a New Class of Near-Infrared-Emitting Conjugated Polymers: Borylated PF8-BT

Borylated poly(fluorene-benzothiadiazoles) (PF8-BT) are π-conjugated polymers (CPs) with deep-red/near-infrared (NIR) absorption and emission profiles suitable for in vivo optical imaging. A fully borylated PF8-BT derivative (P4) was encapsulated in pegylated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PEG-PLGA) nanoparticles and compared with a reference NIR-emitting CP (PCPDTBT) or indocyanine green (ICG). All formulations satisfied quality requirements for parenterally administered diagnostics. P4 nanoparticles had higher quantum yield (2.3%) than PCPCDTBT (0.01%) or ICG nanoparticles (1.1%). The signal/background ratios (SBRs) of CP systems P4 and PCPDTBT in a phantom mouse (λ_em = 820 nm) increased linearly with fluorophore mass (12.5-100 μg/mL), while the SBRs of ICG decreased above 25 μg/mL. P4 nanoparticles experienced <10% photobleaching over 10 irradiations (PCPDTBT: ∼25% and ICG: >44%). In a mouse tumor xenograft model, P4 nanoparticles showed a 5-fold higher SBR than PCPDTBT particles with fluorophore accumulation in the liver > spleen > tumor. Blood chemistry and tissue histology showed no abnormalities compared to untreated animals after a single administration.

Low molecular weight PEG-PLGA polymers provide a superior matrix for conjugated polymer nanoparticles in terms of physicochemical properties, biocompatibility and optical/photoacoustic performance

The near-infrared absorbing conjugated polymer poly[2,6-(4,4-bis-(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-cyclopenta[2,1-b;3,4-b']-dithiophene)-alt-4,7-(2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)] (PCPDTBT) has been investigated as a contrast agent for optical and photoacoustic imaging. Lipophilic π-conjugated polymers can be efficiently encapsulated within self-assembling diblock copolymer poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PEG-PLGA) nanoparticles, although the effect of variations in PEG and PLGA chain lengths on nanoparticle properties, performance and biocompatibility have not yet been investigated. In this study, PEG-PLGA with different block lengths (PEG_2kDa-PLGA_4kDa, PEG_2kDa-PLGA_15kDa and PEG_5kDa-PLGA_55kDa) were used to encapsulate PCPDTBT. Nanoparticle sizes were smallest (<100 nm) when using PEG_2kDa-PLGA_4kDa, with <5% PCPDTBT content and a reduction in the total solids concentration of the organic phase. All PEG-PLGA nanoparticles were colloidally stable in water and serum-supplemented cell culture medium over 24 h at 37 °C, with slight evidence of protein surface adsorption. PEG_2kDa-PLGA_4kDa systems showed a threefold lower cytotoxicity (IC₅₀ value) than the other two systems. Haemolytic activity was <2.5% for all systems and no platelet aggregation or inhibition of ADP-induced platelet aggregation was observed. Encapsulation of PCPDTBT within a PEG-PLGA matrix shifted fluorescence emission towards red wavelengths (760 nm in THF vs. 840 nm in nanoparticles) and reduced the quantum yield by 30-70-fold compared to THF. Nonetheless, PCPDTBT:PEG_2kDa-PLGA_4kDa systems had a marginally higher quantum yield and signal-to-background ratio in a phantom mouse compared with PEG_2kDa-PLGA_15kDa and PEG_5kDa-PLGA_55kDa systems. As a photoacoustic imaging probe, PCPDTBT:PEG_2kDa-PLGA_4kDa systems also showed a higher photoacoustic amplitude compared to higher molecular weight PEG-PLGA systems. Overall, the low molecular weight PEG_2kDa-PLGA_4kDa nanoparticle systems conferred the benefits of smaller sizes, reduced cytotoxicity and enhanced imaging performance compared to higher molecular weight matrix polymers.

Interactions of oligochitosan with blood components

Oligochitosan (OCHI) is known to have some specific biological activities. However, its interactions with blood components and related correlation with molecular structures remains to be clarified due to its growing use in biomedical areas. Herein, a series of OCHI were prepared by hydrogen peroxide induced degradation combined fractionation in ethanol solutions and their molecular structures were characterized by GPC, FTIR, ¹H and ¹³C NMR, and then the interactions of the prepared OCHI with blood components, including red blood cells (hemolysis, deformability, and aggregation), coagulation system, complement (C3a, and C5a activation), and platelet (activation, and aggregation), were investigated. For red blood cells, OCHI has a quite low risk of hemolysis in a dose- and MW-dependent manner and the deformability and aggregation were observed in its high MW fraction. The coagulation tests revealed that OCHI is capable of a mild anticoagulation through blocking the intrinsic pathway and the anticoagulation corresponding MW was identified. In terms of complement, OCHI could inhibit C3a in a dose-dependent manner and activate C5a with its high MW fraction. In addition, there is no significant effect of OCHI on platelet activation and aggregation. Based on above results, the interactions related mechanism was discussed and proposed.

Influence of the Surfactant Structure on Photoluminescent π-Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles: Interfacial Properties and Protein Binding

π-Conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) are under investigation as photoluminescent agents for diagnostics and bioimaging. To determine whether the choice of surfactant can improve CPN properties and prevent protein adsorption, five nonionic polyethylene glycol alkyl ether surfactants were used to produce CPNs from three representative π-conjugated polymers. The surfactant structure did not influence size or yield, which was dependent on the nature of the conjugated polymer. Hydrophobic interaction chromatography, contact angle, quartz crystal microbalance, and neutron reflectivity studies were used to assess the affinity of the surfactant to the conjugated polymer surface and indicated that all surfactants were displaced by the addition of a model serum protein. In summary, CPN preparation methods which rely on surface coating of a conjugated polymer core with amphiphilic surfactants may produce systems with good yields and colloidal stability in vitro, but may be susceptible to significant surface alterations in physiological fluids.

Magnetic conjugated polymer nanoparticles doped with a europium complex for biomedical imaging

Self-assembling conjugated polymer nanoparticles containing PVK and PLGA-PEG as a matrix polymer were doped with both a luminescent rare-earth complex and magnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs), giving rise to materials that are both luminescent and magnetic.

Post-polymerization C-H Borylation of Donor-Acceptor Materials Gives Highly Efficient Solid State Near-Infrared Emitters for Near-IR-OLEDs and Effective Biological Imaging

Post-polymerization modification of the donor-acceptor polymer, poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene-alt-benzothiadiazole), PF8-BT, by electrophilic C-H borylation is a simple method to introduce controllable quantities of near-infrared (near-IR) emitting chromophore units into the backbone of a conjugated polymer. The highly stable borylated unit possesses a significantly lower LUMO energy than the pristine polymer resulting in a reduction in the band gap of the polymer by up to 0.63 eV and a red shift in emission of more than 150 nm. Extensively borylated polymers absorb strongly in the deep red/near-IR and are highly emissive in the near-IR region of the spectrum in solution and solid state. Photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) values are extremely high in the solid state for materials with emission maxima ≥ 700 nm with PLQY values of 44% at 700 nm and 11% at 757 nm for PF8-BT with different borylation levels. This high brightness enables efficient solution processed near-IR emitting OLEDs to be fabricated and highly emissive borylated polymer loaded conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNPs) to be prepared. The latter are bright, photostable, low toxicity bioimaging agents that in phantom mouse studies show higher signal to background ratios for emission at 820 nm than the ubiquitous near-IR emissive bioimaging agent indocyanine green. This methodology represents a general approach for the post-polymerization functionalization of donor-acceptor polymers to reduce the band gap as confirmed by the C-H borylation of poly((9,9-dioctylfluorene)-2,7-diyl-alt-[4,7-bis(3-hexylthien-5-yl)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole]-2c,2cc-diyl) (PF8TBT) resulting in a red shift in emission of >150 nm, thereby shifting the emission maximum to 810 nm.

Amino acid-modified chitosan nanoparticles for Cu2+ chelation to suppress CuO nanoparticle cytotoxicity

The extensive development and application of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) in various fields worldwide have been subjected to increasing concern due to their potential hazards to human health and the environment. Therefore, a simple, economical, and effective method for suppressing the toxicity of metal-based nanomaterials is needed. In this study, glutaraldehyde-crosslinked chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs) were prepared and further modified with lysine (Ly-CS), glutamic acid (Glu-CS), or sodium borohydride reduction (R-CS), and used to suppress cytotoxicity induced by copper oxide NPs (CuO NPs) through chelation with intracellularly released copper ions. All three kinds of CS NPs had similar sizes of ∼100 nm in a dry state and ∼200 nm in cell culture medium, as determined by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering. The chelating efficiency of different CS NPs followed the order Ly-CS > Glu-CS > R-CS. The CS NPs showed minimal or no toxicity to three different cell lines (HepG2, A549, and RAW264.7 cells) at 100 μg mL^-1 with similar cell internalization and exocytosis processes. Comparatively, RAW264.7 cells exhibited higher endocytosis and exocytosis rates, as revealed by flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy. CS NPs were found as agglomerates inside A549 cells and RAW264.7 cells, with the amount of agglomerates inside RAW264.7 cells decreasing significantly with prolonged incubation. All three CS NPs, especially Ly-CS and Glu-CS NPs, efficiently suppressed the cytotoxicity induced by CuO NPs, and reduced the intracellular level of reactive oxygen species.

Bright conjugated polymer nanoparticles containing a biodegradable shell produced at high yields and with tuneable optical properties by a scalable microfluidic device

This study compares the performance of a microfluidic technique and a conventional bulk method to manufacture conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) embedded within a biodegradable poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PEG_5K-PLGA_55K) matrix. The influence of PEG_5K-PLGA_55K and conjugated polymers cyano-substituted poly(p-phenylene vinylene) (CN-PPV) and poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole) (F8BT) on the physicochemical properties of the CPNs was also evaluated. Both techniques enabled CPN production with high end product yields (∼70-95%). However, while the bulk technique (solvent displacement) under optimal conditions generated small nanoparticles (∼70-100 nm) with similar optical properties (quantum yields ∼35%), the microfluidic approach produced larger CPNs (140-260 nm) with significantly superior quantum yields (49-55%) and tailored emission spectra. CPNs containing CN-PPV showed smaller size distributions and tuneable emission spectra compared to F8BT systems prepared under the same conditions. The presence of PEG_5K-PLGA_55K did not affect the size or optical properties of the CPNs and provided a neutral net electric charge as is often required for biomedical applications. The microfluidics flow-based device was successfully used for the continuous preparation of CPNs over a 24 hour period. On the basis of the results presented here, it can be concluded that the microfluidic device used in this study can be used to optimize the production of bright CPNs with tailored properties with good reproducibility.

Bright, near infrared emitting PLGA–PEG dye-doped CN-PPV nanoparticles for imaging applications

In this publication, we describe the synthesis of near-IR emitting conjugated polymer nanoparticles with an engineered surface, and their use in biological imaging.

Recent advances of semiconducting polymer nanoparticles in in vivo molecular imaging

Semiconducting polymer nanoparticles (SPNs) emerge as attractive molecular imaging nanoagents in living animals because of their excellent optical properties including large absorption coefficients, tunable optical properties and controllable dimensions, high photostability, and the use of organic and biologically inert components without toxic metals. This review summarizes the recent advances of these new organic nanoparticles in in vivo molecular imaging. The in vivo biocompatibility of SPNs is discussed first in details, followed by examples of their applications ranging from sentinel lymph node mapping and tumor imaging to long-term cell tracking, to drug toxicity and bacterial infection imaging for fluorescence, bioluminescence, chemiluminescence and photoacoustic imaging in living animals. The utility of SPNs for designing smart activatable probes for real-time in vivo imaging is also discussed.

Microwave-assisted green synthesis of some nanoconjugated copolymers: characterisation and fluorescence quenching studies with bovine serum albumin

The copolymer POPD-co-PNA quenches BSA fluorescence revealing many of its photophysical characteristics including a higher association constant and its scintillating presence on the latter.