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Buckley A, Guo C, Laycock A, Cui X, Belinga-Desaunay-Nault MF, Valsami-Jones E, Leonard M, Smith R. Aerosol exposure at air-liquid-interface (AE-ALI) in vitro toxicity system characterisation: Particle deposition and the importance of air control responses. Toxicol In Vitro 2024; 100:105889. [PMID: 38971396 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2024.105889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024]
Abstract
Experimental systems allowing aerosol exposure (AE) of cell cultures at the air-liquid-interface (ALI) are increasingly being used to assess the toxicity of inhaled contaminants as they are more biomimetic than standard methods using submerged cultures, however, they require detailed characterisation before use. An AE-ALI system combining aerosol generation with a CULTEX® exposure chamber was characterised with respect to particle deposition and the cellular effects of filtered air (typical control) exposures. The effect of system parameters (electrostatic precipitator voltage, air flowrate to cells and insert size) on deposition efficiency and spatial distribution were investigated using ICP-MS and laser ablation ICP-MS, for an aerosol of CeO2 nanoparticles. Deposition varied with conditions, but appropriate choice of operating parameters produced broadly uniform deposition at suitable levels. The impact of air exposure duration on alveolar cells (A549) and primary small airway epithelial cells (SAECs) was explored with respect to LDH release and expression of selected genes. Results indicated that air exposures could have a significant impact on cells (e.g., cytotoxicity and expression of genes, including CXCL1, HMOX1, and SPP1) at relatively short durations (from 10 mins) and that SAECs were more sensitive. These findings indicate that detailed system characterisation is essential to ensure meaningful results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Buckley
- Toxicology Department, Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards Directorate (RCE), UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Harwell Campus, Oxfordshire OX11 0RQ, UK; The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU) in Environmental Exposures and Health (EEH) at Imperial College London in Partnership with UKHSA, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, Michael Uren Biomedical Engineering Hub, White City Campus, Wood Lane, W12 OBZ, UK
| | - Chang Guo
- Toxicology Department, Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards Directorate (RCE), UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Harwell Campus, Oxfordshire OX11 0RQ, UK; The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU) in Environmental Exposures and Health (EEH) at Imperial College London in Partnership with UKHSA, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, Michael Uren Biomedical Engineering Hub, White City Campus, Wood Lane, W12 OBZ, UK
| | - Adam Laycock
- Toxicology Department, Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards Directorate (RCE), UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Harwell Campus, Oxfordshire OX11 0RQ, UK; The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU) in Environmental Exposures and Health (EEH) at Imperial College London in Partnership with UKHSA, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, Michael Uren Biomedical Engineering Hub, White City Campus, Wood Lane, W12 OBZ, UK
| | - Xianjin Cui
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; Nanodot Limited, Loughborough LE11 4NT, UK
| | | | - Eugenia Valsami-Jones
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Martin Leonard
- Toxicology Department, Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards Directorate (RCE), UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Harwell Campus, Oxfordshire OX11 0RQ, UK; The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU) in Environmental Exposures and Health (EEH) at Imperial College London in Partnership with UKHSA, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, Michael Uren Biomedical Engineering Hub, White City Campus, Wood Lane, W12 OBZ, UK
| | - Rachel Smith
- Toxicology Department, Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards Directorate (RCE), UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Harwell Campus, Oxfordshire OX11 0RQ, UK; The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU) in Environmental Exposures and Health (EEH) at Imperial College London in Partnership with UKHSA, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, Michael Uren Biomedical Engineering Hub, White City Campus, Wood Lane, W12 OBZ, UK
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2
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Aslam Saifi M, Hirawat R, Godugu C. Lactoferrin-Decorated Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles Prevent Renal Injury and Fibrosis. Biol Trace Elem Res 2023; 201:1837-1845. [PMID: 35568769 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-022-03284-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Renal fibrosis is a hallmark feature of chronic kidney diseases (CKDs). However, despite the increased prevalence of renal fibrosis, there is no approved antifibrotic drug for the management of renal fibrosis. Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CONPs) have been demonstrated to possess a number of properties including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and nephroprotective activity. As the kidneys are rich in lactoferrin (Lf) receptors, we synthesised the lactoferrin-CONP (Lf-CONP) system to be used for active targeting of the kidneys and provide antifibrotic effects of CONPs to the kidneys. We used the unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO)-induced renal fibrosis model and treated the animals with Lf-CONP to observe the antifibrotic effects of Lf-CONP. Lf-CONP was found to inhibit the progression of renal fibrosis in a superior manner when compared to CONPs alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Aslam Saifi
- Department of Biological Sciences (Regulatory Toxicology), National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Rishabh Hirawat
- Department of Biological Sciences (Regulatory Toxicology), National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Chandraiah Godugu
- Department of Biological Sciences (Regulatory Toxicology), National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
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Pesaraklou A, Matin MM. Cerium oxide nanoparticles and their importance in cell signaling pathways for predicting cellular behavior. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2020; 15:1709-1718. [PMID: 32664817 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2020-0104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO2-NPs) have prolifically attracted immense interest of researchers due to their prominent anti-oxidant nature. However, these characteristics are accompanied by some ambiguities in other studies reporting their oxidant and toxic properties. In this regard previous literature has pointed to the importance of the NPs morphology and environmental conditions as well as biomolecules that induce a different response by initiating a cascade of activities. Therefore, due to the fact that signaling proteins are key mediators in cellular responses, the cognizance of the CeO2-NP-targeted signaling pathways could facilitate predicting the cellular behavior and thus more efficient applications of these NPs for clinical purposes. Consequently, a comprehensive review is necessary in this field, to clarify the impacts of CeO2-NPs on various signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atefeh Pesaraklou
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, 9177948974, Iran
| | - Maryam M Matin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, 9177948974, Iran.,Novel Diagnostics & Therapeutics Research Group, Institute of Biotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, 9177948974, Iran.,Stem Cells & Regenerative Medicine Research Group, Academic Center for Education, Culture & Research (ACECR), Khorasan Razavi Branch, Mashhad, 9177949367, Iran
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4
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Sepanjnia A, Ghasemi H, Mohseni R, Ranjbar A, Shabani F, Salimi F, Kheiripour N. Effect of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles on Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Rats' Kidney, Lung, and Serum. IRANIAN BIOMEDICAL JOURNAL 2020; 24:251-6. [PMID: 32306723 PMCID: PMC7275813 DOI: 10.29252/ibj.24.4.251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Background The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of different concentrations of cerium oxide nanoparticles (CONPs) on the oxidative stress (OS) status in kidney, lung, and serum of rats. Methods Male Wistar Rats were treated intraperitoneally with 15, 30, and 60 mg/kg/day of CONPs. The biochemical parameters, including total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total thiol group (TTG), malondialdehyde (MDA), SOD (superoxide dismutase), and catalase (CAT) were assayed in serum, kidney, and lung tissues. Results MDA decreased, but TTG and CAT increased in serum by the administration of CONPs at 15 mg/kg. In kidney homogenate obtained from the group treated with CONPs at 15 mg/kg, TAC, TTG, and CAT significantly increased compared to the control group. However, CONPs at 15, 30, and 60 mg/kg significantly decreased MDA level compared to the control group. In lung tissue, CONPs in doses of 15, 30 and 60 mg/kg significantly decreased CAT activity, TTG and TAC compared to the control group, while in kidney tissue, CONPs at the concentrations of 30 and 60 mg/kg significantly increased MDA compared to the control group. Conclusion Our findings suggest that CONPs attenuate OS in the kidney and affect the serum levels of OS-related markers but induce OS in the lung tissue in a dose-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adel Sepanjnia
- Department of Biomedical Science, School of Medicine, Jiroft University of Medical Sciences, Jiroft, Iran
| | - Hassan Ghasemi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Abadan Faculty of Medical Sciences, Abadan, Iran
| | - Roohollah Mohseni
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran
| | - Akram Ranjbar
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Shabani
- Department of Biomedical Science, School of Medicine, Jiroft University of Medical Sciences, Jiroft, Iran
| | - Fouzieh Salimi
- Department of Biomedical Science, School of Medicine, Jiroft University of Medical Sciences, Jiroft, Iran
| | - Nejat Kheiripour
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Nutrition in Metabolic Diseases, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
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Mohammad Jafari R, Ala M, Goodarzi N, Dehpour AR. Does Pharmacodynamics of Drugs Change After Presenting them as Nanoparticles Like their Pharmacokinetics? Curr Drug Targets 2020; 21:807-818. [DOI: 10.2174/1389450121666200128113547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
:
Nowadays, the breakthrough in different medical branches makes it feasible to designate
new methods of drug delivery to achieve the most cost-effective and the least unpleasant consequenceimposing
solutions to overcome a wide range of diseases.
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Nanoparticle (NP) drugs entered the therapeutic system, especially in cancer chemotherapy. These
drugs are quite well-known for two traits of being long-acting and less toxic. For a long time, it has
been investigated how NPs will change the kinetics of drugs. However, there are a few studies that inclined
their attention to how NPs affect the dynamics of drugs. In this review, the latter point will
mainly be discussed in an example-based manner. Besides, other particular features of NPs will be
briefly noted.
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NPs are capable of affecting the biologic system as much as a drug. Moreover, NPs could arise a wide
variety of effects by triggering their own receptors. NPs are able to change a receptor function and
manipulate its downstream signaling cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Razieh Mohammad Jafari
- Experimental Medicine Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Moein Ala
- Experimental Medicine Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Navid Goodarzi
- Nanotechnology Research Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ahmad Reza Dehpour
- Experimental Medicine Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Meldrum K, Robertson S, Römer I, Marczylo T, Gant TW, Smith R, Tetley TD, Leonard MO. Diesel exhaust particle and dust mite induced airway inflammation is modified by cerium dioxide nanoparticles. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2020; 73:103273. [PMID: 31629203 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2019.103273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cerium dioxide nanoparticles (CeO2NPs) have been used as diesel fuel-borne catalysts for improved efficiency and pollutant emissions. Concerns that such material may influence diesel exhaust particle (DEP) effects within the lung upon inhalation, prompted us to examine particle responses in mice in the presence and absence of the common allergen house dust mite (HDM). Repeated intranasal instillation of combined HDM and DEP increased airway mucin, eosinophils, lymphocytes, IL-5, IL-13, IL-17A and plasma IgE, which were further increased with CeO2NPs co-exposure. A single co-exposure of CeO2NPs and DEP after repeated HDM exposure increased macrophage and IL-17A levels above DEP induced levels. CeO2NPs exposure in the absence of HDM also resulted in increased levels of plasma IgE and airway mucin staining, changes not observed with repeated DEP exposure alone. These observations indicate that CeO2NPs can modify exhaust particulate and allergen induced inflammatory events in the lung with the potential to influence conditions such as allergic airway disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty Meldrum
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Harwell Campus, OX11 0RQ, UK; Lung Cell Biology, Airways Disease, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Sarah Robertson
- Environmental Hazards and Emergencies Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Harwell Campus, OX11 0RQ, UK.
| | - Isabella Römer
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Harwell Campus, OX11 0RQ, UK.
| | - Tim Marczylo
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Harwell Campus, OX11 0RQ, UK.
| | - Timothy W Gant
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Harwell Campus, OX11 0RQ, UK.
| | - Rachel Smith
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Harwell Campus, OX11 0RQ, UK.
| | - Teresa D Tetley
- Lung Cell Biology, Airways Disease, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Martin O Leonard
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Harwell Campus, OX11 0RQ, UK.
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Meldrum K, Robertson SB, Römer I, Marczylo T, Dean LSN, Rogers A, Gant TW, Smith R, Tetley TD, Leonard MO. Cerium dioxide nanoparticles exacerbate house dust mite induced type II airway inflammation. Part Fibre Toxicol 2018; 15:24. [PMID: 29792201 PMCID: PMC5966909 DOI: 10.1186/s12989-018-0261-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Nanomaterial inhalation represents a potential hazard for respiratory conditions such as asthma. Cerium dioxide nanoparticles (CeO2NPs) have the ability to modify disease outcome but have not been investigated for their effect on models of asthma and inflammatory lung disease. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of CeO2NPs in a house dust mite (HDM) induced murine model of asthma. Results Repeated intranasal instillation of CeO2NPs in the presence of HDM caused the induction of a type II inflammatory response, characterised by increased bronchoalveolar lavage eosinophils, mast cells, total plasma IgE and goblet cell metaplasia. This was accompanied by increases in IL-4, CCL11 and MCPT1 gene expression together with increases in the mucin and inflammatory regulators CLCA1 and SLC26A4. CLCA1 and SLC26A4 were also induced by CeO2NPs + HDM co-exposure in air liquid interface cultures of human primary bronchial epithelial cells. HDM induced airway hyperresponsiveness and airway remodelling in mice were not altered with CeO2NPs co-exposure. Repeated HMD instillations followed by a single exposure to CeO2NPs failed to produce changes in type II inflammatory endpoints but did result in alterations in the neutrophil marker CD177. Treatment of mice with CeO2NPs in the absence of HDM did not have any significant effects. RNA-SEQ was used to explore early effects 24 h after single treatment exposures. Changes in SAA3 expression paralleled increased neutrophil BAL levels, while no changes in eosinophil or lymphocyte levels were observed. HDM resulted in a strong induction of type I interferon and IRF3 dependent gene expression, which was inhibited with CeO2NPs co-exposure. Changes in the expression of genes including CCL20, CXCL10, NLRC5, IRF7 and CLEC10A suggest regulation of dendritic cells, macrophage functionality and IRF3 modulation as key early events in how CeO2NPs may guide pulmonary responses to HDM towards type II inflammation. Conclusions CeO2NPs were observed to modulate the murine pulmonary response to house dust mite allergen exposure towards a type II inflammatory environment. As this type of response is present within asthmatic endotypes this finding may have implications for how occupational or incidental exposure to CeO2NPs should be considered for those susceptible to disease. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12989-018-0261-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty Meldrum
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Harwell Campus, Chilton, OX110RQ, UK.,Lung Cell Biology, Airways Disease, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK.,The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England (PHE) in collaboration with Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sarah B Robertson
- Environmental Hazards and Emergencies Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Harwell Campus, Chilton, OX110RQ, UK.,The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England (PHE) in collaboration with Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Isabella Römer
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Harwell Campus, Chilton, OX110RQ, UK.,The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England (PHE) in collaboration with Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Tim Marczylo
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Harwell Campus, Chilton, OX110RQ, UK.,The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England (PHE) in collaboration with Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Lareb S N Dean
- Lung Cell Biology, Airways Disease, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK.,The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England (PHE) in collaboration with Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Andrew Rogers
- Lung Cell Biology, Airways Disease, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Timothy W Gant
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Harwell Campus, Chilton, OX110RQ, UK.,The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England (PHE) in collaboration with Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Rachel Smith
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Harwell Campus, Chilton, OX110RQ, UK.,The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England (PHE) in collaboration with Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Terry D Tetley
- Lung Cell Biology, Airways Disease, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK.,The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England (PHE) in collaboration with Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Martin O Leonard
- Toxicology Department, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Harwell Campus, Chilton, OX110RQ, UK. .,The National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England (PHE) in collaboration with Imperial College London, London, UK.
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Menon N, Leong DT. Cytotoxic Effects of Phosphonate-Functionalized Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:2416-2422. [PMID: 26741564 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b11741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we synthesized pristine mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) and functionalized these with phosphonate groups (MSN-Phos). We report, for the first time, cell death in MCF-7 cells (human breast adenocarcinoma cell line) when exposed to the empty MSN and MSN-Phos nanoparticles. In comparison, the same nanoparticles were found to elicit few deleterious effects on normal human foreskin fibroblast cells (BJ cells). MCF-7 cells were found to exhibit a concentration-dependent uptake, whereas no detectable nanoparticle uptake was observed in the BJ cells, irrespective of treatment dosage. A disruption of the cell cycle in the MCF-7 cells was determined to be the cause of cell death from the nanoparticle exposure, thereby suggesting the role of nondrug loaded MSN and MSN-Phos as effective anticancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandita Menon
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore , 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore 117585, Singapore
| | - David T Leong
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore , 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore 117585, Singapore
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