Pd-Sn Alloy Catalysts for Direct Synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide from H2 and O2 in a Microchannel Reactor

Direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (DSHP) from H₂ and O₂ offers a promising alternative to the present commercial anthraquinone method, but it still faces the challenges of low H₂O₂ productivity, low stability of catalysts, and high risk of explosion. Herein, by loading in a microchannel reactor, the as-synthesized Pd-Sn alloy materials exhibit high catalytic activity for H₂O₂ production, presenting a H₂O₂ productivity of 3124 g kg_Pd^-1 h^-1. The doped Sn atoms on the surface of Pd not only facilitate the release of H₂O₂ but also effectively slow down the deactivation of catalysts. Theoretical calculations demonstrate that the Pd-Sn alloy surface has the property of antihydrogen poisoning, showing higher activity and stability than pure Pd catalysts. The deactivation mechanism of the catalyst was elucidated, and the online reactivation method was developed. In addition, we show that the long-life Pd-Sn alloy catalyst can be achieved by supplying an intermittent flow of hydrogen gas. This work provides guidance on how to prepare high performance and stable Pd-Sn alloy catalysts for the continuous and direct synthesis of H₂O₂.

Heterogeneous Trimetallic Nanoparticles as Catalysts

The development and application of trimetallic nanoparticles continues to accelerate rapidly as a result of advances in materials design, synthetic control, and reaction characterization. Following the technological successes of multicomponent materials in automotive exhausts and photovoltaics, synergistic effects are now accessible through the careful preparation of multielement particles, presenting exciting opportunities in the field of catalysis. In this review, we explore the methods currently used in the design, synthesis, analysis, and application of trimetallic nanoparticles across both the experimental and computational realms and provide a critical perspective on the emergent field of trimetallic nanocatalysts. Trimetallic nanoparticles are typically supported on high-surface-area metal oxides for catalytic applications, synthesized via preparative conditions that are comparable to those applied for mono- and bimetallic nanoparticles. However, controlled elemental segregation and subsequent characterization remain challenging because of the heterogeneous nature of the systems. The multielement composition exhibits beneficial synergy for important oxidation, dehydrogenation, and hydrogenation reactions; in some cases, this is realized through higher selectivity, while activity improvements are also observed. However, challenges related to identifying and harnessing influential characteristics for maximum productivity remain. Computation provides support for the experimental endeavors, for example in electrocatalysis, and a clear need is identified for the marriage of simulation, with respect to both combinatorial element screening and optimal reaction design, to experiment in order to maximize productivity from this nascent field. Clear challenges remain with respect to identifying, making, and applying trimetallic catalysts efficiently, but the foundations are now visible, and the outlook is strong for this exciting chemical field.

A casting combined quenching strategy to prepare PdAg single atom alloys designed using the cluster expansion combined Monte Carlo method

In this work, the surface structure of a PdAg alloy is investigated by cluster expansion (CE) combined Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. All systems with different component proportions show an obvious component segregation corresponding to the depth from the surface. A significant amount of Ag is observed on the first layer, and Pd is concentrated significantly on the second layer. The Pd distribution on the PdAg surfaces is closely related to the temperature and composition ascribed to the concentration and configurational entropy effects, which are explicitly treated in MC simulations. The vacancies mainly distribute separately. The simulation results show good agreement with the experimental evidence. Moreover, we demonstrated a general and highly effective casting combined quenching strategy for controlling the ensemble size and chemical composition of alloy surfaces which could successfully be applied to the large-scale production of SAA.

Enhancing the catalytic performance of PdAu catalysts by W-induced strong interaction for the direct synthesis of H2O2

W-Induced strong interaction with PdAu is the key to the enhanced catalytic performance for the direct synthesis of H2O2, with WO3 species partially encapsulating the PdAu particles.

Enhancing catalytic performance of AuPd catalysts towards the direct synthesis of H2O2 through incorporation of base metals

The introduction of small quantities of tertiary base metals into supported AuPd nanoparticles is found to result in improved catalytic performance towards the direct synthesis of H2O2 compared to the...

Direct synthesis of H2O2 over Pd–M@HCS (M = Sn, Fe, Co, or Ni): effects of non-noble metal M on the electronic state and particle size of Pd

Direct synthesis of H2O2 in a yolk–shell structure assisted by M (M = Fe,Co,Ni,Sn) metal doping.

Effect of Ag doping on Pd/Ag-CeO2 catalysts for CO and C3H6 oxidation

To achieve high fuel efficiency and low emission in automobiles, it is necessary to develop highly active diesel oxidation catalysts (DOCs). Pd/CeO₂ catalysts have been widely used as active catalysts for CO and C₃H₆ oxidation reactions. Additionally, Ag has been reported to enhance the oxygen storage capacity (OSC) of CeO₂, which contributes to the oxidation ability of Pd/CeO₂. In this study, Pd/Ag-CeO₂ catalysts were used for CO and C₃H₆ oxidation reactions. When CeO₂ was doped with appropriate amounts of Ag, reducibility and CO desorption rate were increased, which confirmed the high OSCs of Ag-doped catalysts. However, Ag particles were formed and the Ce³⁺/Ce⁴⁺ ratio decreased when CeO₂ was doped with excess amounts of Ag. In addition, reduced Pd (Pd⁰), which is an active species for C₃H₆ oxidation, was formed and maintained even under oxidative reaction conditions. Since the removal of C₃H₆ is important for the oxidation of CO and C₃H₆, the catalyst with the highest Pd⁰ fraction (Pd/0.1Ag-CeO₂ and Pd/0.3Ag-CeO₂) presented improved catalytic activity. Consequently, the optimal amount of Ag enhanced the OSC of Pd/Ag-CeO₂ catalysts and formed active Pd⁰ species under oxidative conditions, which resulted in the excellent catalytic activity of Pd/Ag-CeO₂ for the CO and C₃H₆ oxidation reaction.

The Direct Synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide over AuPd Nanoparticles: An Investigation into Metal Loading

The direct synthesis of H2O2 from molecular H2 and O2 over AuPd catalysts, supported on TiO2 and prepared via an excess chloride co-impregnation procedure is investigated. The role of Au:Pd ratio on the catalytic activity towards H2O2 formation and its subsequent degradation is evaluated under conditions that have previously been found to be optimal for the formation of H2O2. The combination of relatively small nanoparticles, of mixed Pd-oxidation state is shown to correlate with enhanced catalytic performance. Subsequently, a detailed study of catalytic activity towards H2O2 synthesis as a function of AuPd loading was conducted, with a direct correlation between catalytic activity and metal loading observed.

Graphic Abstract

The Selective Oxidation of Cyclohexane via In-situ H2O2 Production Over Supported Pd-based Catalysts

The oxidation of cyclohexane via the in-situ production of H2O2 from molecular H2 and O2 offers an attractive route to the current industrial means of producing cyclohexanone and cyclohexanol (KA oil), key materials in the production of Nylon. The in-situ route has the potential to overcome the significant economic and environmental concerns associated with the use of commercial H2O2, while also allowing for the use of far lower reaction temperatures than those typical of the purely aerobic route to KA oil. Herein we demonstrate the efficacy of a series of bi-functional Pd-based catalysts, which offer appreciable concentrations of KA oil, under conditions where limited activity is observed using O2 alone. In particular the introduction of V into a supported Pd catalyst is seen to improve KA oil concentration by an order of magnitude, compared to the Pd-only analogue. In particular we ascribe this improvement in catalytic performance to the development of Pd domains of mixed oxidation state upon V incorporation as evidenced through X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Graphic Abstract

The synergistic effect of the carbon shell pore volume and core Pd size of Pd@hollow@C-X for the synthesis of H2O2

Yolk–shell Pd@hollow@C-X (X = 1.5, 3.2, 4.5 and 6) catalysts with Pd as the core and porous carbon as the shell were prepared via the inverse microemulsion method.

The direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide from H2 and O2 using Pd-Ni/TiO2 catalysts

The direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) from molecular H2 and O2 offers an attractive, decentralized alternative to production compared to the current means of production, the anthraquinone process. Herein we evaluate the performance of a 0.5%Pd-4.5%Ni/TiO2 catalyst in batch and flow reactor systems using water as a solvent at ambient temperature. These reaction conditions are considered challenging for the synthesis of high H2O2 concentrations, with the use of sub-ambient temperatures and alcohol co-solvents typical. Catalytic activity was observed to be stable to prolonged use in multiple batch experiments or in a flow system, with selectivities towards H2O2 of 97% and 85%, respectively. This study was carried out in the absence of halide or acid additives that are typically used to inhibit sequential H2O2 degradation reactions showing that this Pd-Ni catalyst has the potential to produce H2O2 selectively. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Science to enable the circular economy'.

The direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide from H2 and O2 using Pd–Ga and Pd–In catalysts

The direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide is investigated using PdGa/TiO₂ and PdIn/TiO₂ catalysts prepared by an acid-washed sol-immobilisation procedure, which allows for enhanced catalytic selectivity.

Dehydrogenation of formic acid over Pd/C catalysts: insight into the cold plasma treatment

Non-thermal plasma treatment has great potential to open a fast and green route for controllable synthesis of highly active supported metal catalysts.

Enhanced catalyst selectivity in the direct synthesis of H2O2 through Pt incorporation into TiO2 supported AuPd catalysts

The introduction of low levels of Pt dopant into AuPd nanoparticles supported on TiO₂ significantly enhances their catalytic performance for the direct synthesis of H₂O₂.

Looking for the “Dream Catalyst” for Hydrogen Peroxide Production from Hydrogen and Oxygen

The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen is in principle the simplest method to form hydrogen peroxide, but it is still a “dream process”, thus needing a “dream catalyst”. The aim of this review is to analyze critically the different heterogeneous catalysts used for the direct synthesis of H2O2 trying to determine the features that the ideal or “dream catalyst” should possess. This analysis will refer specifically to the following points: (i) the choice of the metal; (ii) the metal promoters used to improve the activity and/or the selectivity; (iii) the role of different supports and their acidic properties; (iv) the addition of halide promoters to inhibit undesired side reactions; (v) the addition of other promoters; (vi) the effects of particle morphology; and (vii) the effects of different synthetic methods on catalyst morphology and performance.

Recent Advances in the Direct Synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide Using Chemical Catalysis—A Review

Hydrogen peroxide is an important chemical of increasing demand in today’s world. Currently, the anthraquinone autoxidation process dominates the industrial production of hydrogen peroxide. Herein, hydrogen and oxygen are reacted indirectly in the presence of quinones to yield hydrogen peroxide. Owing to the complexity and multi-step nature of the process, it is advantageous to replace the process with an easier and straightforward one. The direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide from its constituent reagents is an effective and clean route to achieve this goal. Factors such as water formation due to thermodynamics, explosion risk, and the stability of the hydrogen peroxide produced hinder the applicability of this process at an industrial level. Currently, the catalysis for the direct synthesis reaction is palladium based and the research into finding an effective and active catalyst has been ongoing for more than a century now. Palladium in its pure form, or alloyed with certain metals, are some of the new generation of catalysts that are extensively researched. Additionally, to prevent the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water, the process is stabilized by adding certain promoters such as mineral acids and halides. A major part of today’s research in this field focusses on the reactor and the mode of operation required for synthesizing hydrogen peroxide. The emergence of microreactor technology has helped in setting up this synthesis in a continuous mode, which could possibly replace the anthraquinone process in the near future. This review will focus on the recent findings of the scientific community in terms of reaction engineering, catalyst and reactor design in the direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide.

Porous Nanocrystalline Silicon Supported Bimetallic Pd-Au Catalysts: Preparation, Characterization, and Direct Hydrogen Peroxide Synthesis

Bimetallic Pd-Au catalysts were prepared on the porous nanocrystalline silicon (PSi) for the first time. The catalysts were tested in the reaction of direct hydrogen peroxide synthesis and characterized by standard structural and chemical techniques. It was shown that the Pd-Au/PSi catalyst prepared from conventional H₂[PdCl₄] and H[AuCl₄] precursors contains monometallic Pd and a range of different Pd-Au alloy nanoparticles over the oxidized PSi surface. The PdAu₂/PSi catalyst prepared from the [Pd(NH₃)₄][AuCl₄]₂ double complex salt (DCS) single-source precursor predominantly contains bimetallic Pd-Au alloy nanoparticles. For both catalysts the surface of bimetallic nanoparticles is Pd-enriched and contains palladium in Pd⁰ and Pd²⁺ states. Among the catalysts studied, the PdAu₂/PSi catalyst was the most active and selective in the direct H₂O₂ synthesis with H₂O₂ productivity of 0.5 mol gPd-1 h-1 at selectivity of 50% and H₂O₂ concentration of 0.023 M in 0.03 M H₂SO₄-methanol solution after 5 h on stream at −10°C and atmospheric pressure. This performance is due to high activity in the H₂O₂ synthesis reaction and low activities in the undesirable H₂O₂ decomposition and hydrogenation reactions. Good performance of the PdAu₂/PSi catalyst was associated with the major part of Pd in the catalyst being in the form of the bimetallic Pd-Au nanoparticles. Porous silicon was concluded to be a promising catalytic support for direct hydrogen peroxide synthesis due to its inertness with respect to undesirable side reactions, high thermal stability, and conductivity, possibility of safe operation at high temperatures and pressures and a well-established manufacturing process.

Silver-palladium catalysts for the direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide

A series of bimetallic silver-palladium catalysts supported on titania were prepared by wet impregnation and assessed for the direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide, and its subsequent side reactions. The addition of silver to a palladium catalyst was found to significantly decrease hydrogen peroxide productivity and hydrogenation, but crucially increase the rate of decomposition. The decomposition product, which is predominantly hydroxyl radicals, can be used to decrease bacterial colonies. The interaction between silver and palladium was characterized using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and temperature programmed reduction (TPR). The results of the TPR and XPS indicated the formation of a silver-palladium alloy. The optimal 1% Ag-4% Pd/TiO₂ bimetallic catalyst was able to produce approximately 200 ppm of H₂O₂ in 30 min. The findings demonstrate that AgPd/TiO₂ catalysts are active for the synthesis of hydrogen peroxide and its subsequent decomposition to reactive oxygen species. The catalysts are promising for use in wastewater treatment as they combine the disinfectant properties of silver, hydrogen peroxide production and subsequent decomposition.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Providing sustainable catalytic solutions for a rapidly changing world'.

Performance of bimetallic PdRu catalysts supported on gamma alumina for 2-ethylanthraquinone hydrogenation

Addition of Ru to Pd/γ-Al₂O₃can improve the catalyst's activity and maintain the high selectivity for 2-ethylanthraquinone hydrogenation.

TiO2 nanoparticles vs. TiO2 nanowires as support in hydrogen peroxide direct synthesis: the influence of N and Au doping

Nitrogen doping is a new strategy to improve catalysts for H₂O₂ direct synthesis.