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Tian L, Li X, Ji H, Yu Q, Yang M, Guo L, Huang L, Gao W. Melanin-like nanoparticles: advances in surface modification and tumour photothermal therapy. J Nanobiotechnology 2022; 20:485. [PMCID: PMC9675272 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-022-01698-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, tumor treatments are characterized by intelligence, diversity and personalization, but the therapeutic reagents used are often limited in clinical efficacy due to problems with water solubility, targeting, stability and multidrug resistance. To remedy these shortcomings, the application of multifunctional nanotechnology in the biomedical field has been widely studied. Synthetic melanin nanoparticles (MNPs) surfaces which contain highly reactive chemical groups such as carboxyl, hydroxyl and amine groups, can be used as a reaction platform on which to graft different functional components. In addition, MNPs easily adhere to substrate surface, and serve as a secondary reaction platform to modify it. The multifunctionality and intrinsic biocompatibility make melanin-like nanoparticles promising as a multifunctional and powerful nanoplatform for oncological applications. This paper first reviews the preparation methods, polymerization mechanisms and physicochemical properties of melanin including natural melanin and chemically synthesized melanin to guide scholars in MNP-based design. Then, recent advances in MNPs especially synthetic polydopamine (PDA) melanin for various medical oncological applications are systematically and thoroughly described, mainly focusing on bioimaging, photothermal therapy (PTT), and drug delivery for tumor therapy. Finally, based on the investigated literature, the current challenges and future directions for clinical translation are reasonably discussed, focusing on the innovative design of MNPs and further elucidation of pharmacokinetics. This paper is a timely and comprehensive and detailed study of the progress of MNPs in tumor therapy, especially PTT, and provides ideas for the design of personalized and customizable oncology nanomedicines to address the heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Tian
- grid.33763.320000 0004 1761 2484Tianjin Key Laboratory for Modern Drug Delivery & High-Efficiency, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300193 China
| | - Xia Li
- grid.33763.320000 0004 1761 2484Tianjin Key Laboratory for Modern Drug Delivery & High-Efficiency, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300193 China
| | - Haixia Ji
- grid.33763.320000 0004 1761 2484Tianjin Key Laboratory for Modern Drug Delivery & High-Efficiency, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300193 China
| | - Qing Yu
- grid.33763.320000 0004 1761 2484Tianjin Key Laboratory for Modern Drug Delivery & High-Efficiency, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300193 China
| | - Mingjuan Yang
- grid.33763.320000 0004 1761 2484Tianjin Key Laboratory for Modern Drug Delivery & High-Efficiency, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300193 China
| | - Lanping Guo
- grid.410318.f0000 0004 0632 3409National Resource Center for Chinese Materia Medica, Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700 China
| | - Luqi Huang
- grid.410318.f0000 0004 0632 3409National Resource Center for Chinese Materia Medica, Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700 China
| | - Wenyuan Gao
- grid.33763.320000 0004 1761 2484Tianjin Key Laboratory for Modern Drug Delivery & High-Efficiency, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300193 China
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2
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Dabrowski B, Zuchowska A, Brzozka Z. Graphene oxide internalization into mammalian cells – a review. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2022; 221:112998. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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3
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Mughal ZUN, Shaikh H, Baig JA, Memon S, Sirajuddin, Shah S. Fabrication of an imprinted polymer based graphene oxide composite for label-free electrochemical sensing of Sus DNA. NEW J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2nj02958h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
An innovative label-free electrochemical sensor was developed for selective detection of Sus (pig) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) through adenine imprinted polypyrrole fabricated on the surface of allyl mercaptan modified GO (MIP/mGO).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaib un Nisa Mughal
- National Center of Excellence in Analytical Chemistry, University of Sindh, Jamshoro-76080, Sindh, Pakistan
| | - Huma Shaikh
- National Center of Excellence in Analytical Chemistry, University of Sindh, Jamshoro-76080, Sindh, Pakistan
| | - Jamil Ahmed Baig
- National Center of Excellence in Analytical Chemistry, University of Sindh, Jamshoro-76080, Sindh, Pakistan
| | - Shahabuddin Memon
- National Center of Excellence in Analytical Chemistry, University of Sindh, Jamshoro-76080, Sindh, Pakistan
| | - Sirajuddin
- H. E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, I.C.C.B.S. University of Karachi, Karachi-75270, Sindh, Pakistan
| | - Shahnila Shah
- National Center of Excellence in Analytical Chemistry, University of Sindh, Jamshoro-76080, Sindh, Pakistan
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4
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Wu J, Zhang J, Zhou S, Yang Z, Zhang X. Ag nanoparticle-decorated carbon nanotube sponges for removal of methylene blue from aqueous solution. NEW J CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj00860e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Fabrication of AgNP-Pdop-CNTS for MB adsorption and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Wu
- Center for Soft Condensed Matter Physics and Interdisciplinary Research & School of Physical Science and Technology
- Soochow University
- Suzhou 215006
- China
| | - Jiapeng Zhang
- Center for Soft Condensed Matter Physics and Interdisciplinary Research & School of Physical Science and Technology
- Soochow University
- Suzhou 215006
- China
| | - Shenglin Zhou
- Center for Soft Condensed Matter Physics and Interdisciplinary Research & School of Physical Science and Technology
- Soochow University
- Suzhou 215006
- China
| | - Zhaohui Yang
- Center for Soft Condensed Matter Physics and Interdisciplinary Research & School of Physical Science and Technology
- Soochow University
- Suzhou 215006
- China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Thin Films
| | - Xiaohua Zhang
- Center for Soft Condensed Matter Physics and Interdisciplinary Research & School of Physical Science and Technology
- Soochow University
- Suzhou 215006
- China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Thin Films
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5
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Enhancing the Interfacial Adhesion with Rubber Matrix by Grafting Polydopamine-Carbon Nanotubes onto Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) Fibers. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:polym11081231. [PMID: 31344873 PMCID: PMC6722765 DOI: 10.3390/polym11081231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To enhance the interfacial adhesion between poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPTA) fibers and a rubber matrix without damaging the fiber structures, aminated carbon nanotubes (NH2-CNTs) were mildly deposited onto the fiber surface by combining the biomimetic modification of dopamine via the Michael addition reaction. Furthermore, differences between the “one-step” method and the “two-step” method were researched through adjusting the addition sequence of NH2-CNTs. The surface morphologies and chemical structures of PPTA fibers before and after modification were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The mechanical properties of fibers and the adhesive properties with rubber were tested using an electronic tensile tester of single-filament and universal testing machine, respectively. After modification by the “one-step” method for 24 h, the single-filament tensile strength of the modified fibers increased by 16.5%, meanwhile, the pull-out force of the modified fibers to rubber increased by approximately 59.7%. Compared with the “two-step” method, the “one-step” method had superiority due to the short reaction time and the large deposition rate of CNTs.
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Ma L, Zhou M, He C, Li S, Fan X, Nie C, Luo H, Qiu L, Cheng C. Graphene-based advanced nanoplatforms and biocomposites from environmentally friendly and biomimetic approaches. GREEN CHEMISTRY 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9gc02266j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Environmentally friendly and biomimetic approaches to fabricate graphene-based advanced nanoplatforms and biocomposites for biomedical applications are summarized in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lang Ma
- Department of Ultrasound
- West China Hospital
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering
- Sichuan University
| | - Mi Zhou
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610065
- China
| | - Chao He
- Department of Ultrasound
- West China Hospital
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering
- Sichuan University
| | - Shuang Li
- Functional Materials
- Department of Chemistry
- Technische Universität Berlin
- 10623 Berlin
- Germany
| | - Xin Fan
- Department of Ultrasound
- West China Hospital
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering
- Sichuan University
| | - Chuanxiong Nie
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- Freie Universitat Berlin
- Berlin 14195
- Germany
| | - Hongrong Luo
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials
- Sichuan University
- Chengdu 610064
- China
| | - Li Qiu
- Department of Ultrasound
- West China Hospital
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering
- Sichuan University
| | - Chong Cheng
- Department of Ultrasound
- West China Hospital
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering
- Sichuan University
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Xu Z, Lou W, Zhao G, Zhao Q, Xu N, Hao J, Wang X. Preparation of WS2 nanocomposites via mussel-inspired chemistry and their enhanced dispersion stability and tribological performance in polyalkylene glycol. J DISPER SCI TECHNOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/01932691.2018.1479269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhuang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Wenjing Lou
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, P.R. China
| | - Gaiqing Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, P.R. China
| | - Qin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, P.R. China
| | - Nan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, P.R. China
| | - Junying Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, P.R. China
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, P.R. China
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Moulay S. Recent Trends in Mussel-Inspired Catechol-Containing Polymers (A Review). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.13005/ojc/340301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Syntheses and applications of mussel-inspired polymeric materials have gained a foothold in research in recent years. Mussel-inspired chemistry coupled to Michael addition and Schiff’s base reactions was the key success for this intensive research. Unequivocally, The basic building brick of these materials is catechol-containing moiety, namely, 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-L-alanine (L-DOPA or DOPA) and dopamine (DA). These catechol-based units within the chemical structure of the material ensure chiefly its adhesive characteristic to adherends of different natures. The newly-made catechol-bearing polymeric materials exhibit unique features, implying their importance in several uses and applications. Technology advent is being advantaged with these holdfast mussel protein-like materials. This review sheds light into the recent advances of such mussel-inspired materials for their adhesion capacity to several substrata of different natures, and for their applications mainly in antifouling coatings and nanoparticles technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saad Moulay
- Molecular and Macromolecular Chemistry-Physics Laboratory, Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Saâd Dahlab University of Blida, B.P. 270, Soumâa Road, 09000, Blida, Algeria
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9
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Ma Y, Zhang X, Cheng Y, Chen X, Li Y, Zhang A. Mussel-inspired preparation of C60 nanoparticles as photo-driven DNA cleavage reagents. NEW J CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8nj03970d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Designing and constructing favorable water-dispersible fullerenes and their derivatives are of huge importance for biological applications addressing DNA-cleavage and photodynamic therapy (PDT).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihan Ma
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, South-Central University for Nationalities
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, South-Central University for Nationalities
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Yinjia Cheng
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, South-Central University for Nationalities
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Xiaosui Chen
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, South-Central University for Nationalities
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Yong Li
- College of Life Sciences
- South-Central University for Nationalities
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Aiqing Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, South-Central University for Nationalities
- Wuhan
- China
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10
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Room temperature preparation of fluorescent starch nanoparticles from starch-dopamine conjugates and their biological applications. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2018; 82:204-209. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2017.08.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Revised: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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11
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Pinithchaisakula A, Ounnunkad K, Themsirimongkon S, Promsawan N, Waenkaew P, Saipanya S. Efficiency of bimetallic PtPd on polydopamine modified on various carbon supports for alcohol oxidations. Chem Phys 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphys.2016.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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12
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Cheng C, Li S, Thomas A, Kotov NA, Haag R. Functional Graphene Nanomaterials Based Architectures: Biointeractions, Fabrications, and Emerging Biological Applications. Chem Rev 2017; 117:1826-1914. [PMID: 28075573 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Functional graphene nanomaterials (FGNs) are fast emerging materials with extremely unique physical and chemical properties and physiological ability to interfere and/or interact with bioorganisms; as a result, FGNs present manifold possibilities for diverse biological applications. Beyond their use in drug/gene delivery, phototherapy, and bioimaging, recent studies have revealed that FGNs can significantly promote interfacial biointeractions, in particular, with proteins, mammalian cells/stem cells, and microbials. FGNs can adsorb and concentrate nutrition factors including proteins from physiological media. This accelerates the formation of extracellular matrix, which eventually promotes cell colonization by providing a more beneficial microenvironment for cell adhesion and growth. Furthermore, FGNs can also interact with cocultured cells by physical or chemical stimulation, which significantly mediate their cellular signaling and biological performance. In this review, we elucidate FGNs-bioorganism interactions and summarize recent advancements on designing FGN-based two-dimensional and three-dimensional architectures as multifunctional biological platforms. We have also discussed the representative biological applications regarding these FGN-based bioactive architectures. Furthermore, the future perspectives and emerging challenges will also be highlighted. Due to the lack of comprehensive reviews in this emerging field, this review may catch great interest and inspire many new opportunities across a broad range of disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chong Cheng
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin , Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Shuang Li
- Department of Chemistry, Functional Materials, Technische Universität Berlin , Hardenbergstraße 40, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Arne Thomas
- Department of Chemistry, Functional Materials, Technische Universität Berlin , Hardenbergstraße 40, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Nicholas A Kotov
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Rainer Haag
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin , Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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13
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Facile preparation of carbon nanotubes based carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposites through combination of mussel inspired chemistry and Michael addition reaction: Characterization and improved Cu2+ removal capability. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2016.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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14
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Liu M, Zeng G, Wang K, Wan Q, Tao L, Zhang X, Wei Y. Recent developments in polydopamine: an emerging soft matter for surface modification and biomedical applications. NANOSCALE 2016; 8:16819-16840. [PMID: 27704068 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr09078d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
After more than four billion years of evolution, nature has created a large number of fascinating living organisms, which show numerous peculiar structures and wonderful properties. Nature can provide sources of plentiful inspiration for scientists to create various materials and devices with special functions and uses. Since Messersmith proposed the fabrication of multifunctional coatings through mussel-inspired chemistry, this field has attracted considerable attention for its promising and exiciting applications. Polydopamine (PDA), an emerging soft matter, has been demonstrated to be a crucial component in mussel-inspired chemistry. In this review, the recent developments of PDA for mussel-inspired surface modification are summarized and discussed. The biomedical applications of PDA-based materials are also highlighted. We believe that this review can provide important and timely information regarding mussel-inspired chemistry and will be of great interest for scientists in the chemistry, materials, biology, medicine and interdisciplinary fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiying Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Nanchang University, 999 Xuefu Avenue, Nanchang 330031, China. Xiaoyongzhang@
| | - Guangjian Zeng
- Department of Chemistry, Nanchang University, 999 Xuefu Avenue, Nanchang 330031, China. Xiaoyongzhang@
| | - Ke Wang
- Department of Chemistry and the Tsinghua Center for Frontier Polymer Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P. R. China.
| | - Qing Wan
- Department of Chemistry, Nanchang University, 999 Xuefu Avenue, Nanchang 330031, China. Xiaoyongzhang@
| | - Lei Tao
- Department of Chemistry and the Tsinghua Center for Frontier Polymer Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P. R. China.
| | - Xiaoyong Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Nanchang University, 999 Xuefu Avenue, Nanchang 330031, China. Xiaoyongzhang@
| | - Yen Wei
- Department of Chemistry and the Tsinghua Center for Frontier Polymer Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P. R. China.
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15
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Heng C, Liu M, Wang K, Zheng X, Huang H, Deng F, Hui J, Zhang X, Wei Y. Fabrication of silica nanoparticle based polymer nanocomposites via a combination of mussel inspired chemistry and SET-LRP. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra19658b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A facile and efficient strategy combination of mussel inspired chemistry and SET-LRP has been developed for the surface modification of silica nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunning Heng
- Department of Chemistry
- Nanchang University
- Nanchang 330031
- China
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Degradable Biomedical Materials
| | - Meiying Liu
- Department of Chemistry
- Nanchang University
- Nanchang 330031
- China
| | - Ke Wang
- Department of Chemistry and the Tsinghua Center for Frontier Polymer Research
- Tsinghua University
- Beijing
- P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyan Zheng
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Degradable Biomedical Materials
- Shaanxi R&D Center of Biomaterials and Fermentation Engineering
- School of Chemical and Engineering
- Northwest University
- Xi’an
| | - Hongye Huang
- Department of Chemistry
- Nanchang University
- Nanchang 330031
- China
| | - Fengjie Deng
- Department of Chemistry
- Nanchang University
- Nanchang 330031
- China
| | - Junfeng Hui
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Degradable Biomedical Materials
- Shaanxi R&D Center of Biomaterials and Fermentation Engineering
- School of Chemical and Engineering
- Northwest University
- Xi’an
| | - Xiaoyong Zhang
- Department of Chemistry
- Nanchang University
- Nanchang 330031
- China
| | - Yen Wei
- Department of Chemistry and the Tsinghua Center for Frontier Polymer Research
- Tsinghua University
- Beijing
- P. R. China
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