Spherical nitrogen-doped hollow mesoporous carbon as an efficient bifunctional electrocatalyst for Zn-air batteries

Ultrathin Hollow Co/N/C Spheres from Hyper-Crosslinked Polymers by a New Universal Strategy with Boosted ORR Efficiency

Porous carbon materials with hollow structure, on account of the extraordinary morphology, reveal fascinating prospects in lithium-ion batteries, electrocatalysis, etc. However, collapse in ultrathin carbon spheres due to insufficient rigidity in such thin materials obstructs further enhanced capability. Based on hyper-crosslinked polymers (HCPs) with sufficient pore structure and rigid framework, a new bottom-up strategy is proposed to construct SiO₂ @HCPs directly from aromatic monomers. Heteroatom and function groups can be facilely introduced to the skeleton. The thickness of HCPs' wall can be tuned from 9 to 20 nm, which is much thinner than that of hollow sphere synthesized by the traditional method, and the sample with a thickness of 20 nm shows the highest surface area of 1633 m² g^-1 . The oxygen reduction reaction is conducted and the CoNHCS electrocatalysts with an ultrathin thickness of 5 nm display higher half-wave potential than those of bulk samples, even better than commercial Pt/C electrode. On account of the hollow structure, the relative current density loss of electrocatalysts is only 4.1% in comparison with 27.7% in Pt/C electrode during the 15 000 s test, indicating an obvious higher long-term stability. The new strategy to construct hollow HCPs may shed light on efficient chemical catalysis, drug delivery, and electrocatalysis.

N-Doped Graphene-Coated Commercial Pt/C Catalysts toward High-Stability and Antipoisoning in Oxygen Reduction Reaction

Stability and antipoisoning effects are the main challenges for the application of commercial Pt/C catalysts. Herein, we soaked and adsorbed polydopamine to coat Pt particles on commercial Pt/C and subsequently converted the coatings to few-layer N-doped graphene by calcination to produce Pt/C@NC. The coatings effectively block the direct contact of Pt nanoparticles and electrolyte, thus enhancing the catalyst stability by avoiding Ostwald ripening and suppressing the competitive adsorption of toxicants, contributing to the enhancement of the antipoisoning ability. More importantly, the coatings do not hurt the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity of commercial Pt/C, which exhibits a half wave potential of 0.84 V in an acidic electrolyte. The spectroscopic and theoretical results confirmed that the coatings originate from a strong Pt bonding to pyridinic N of N-doped graphene and that the high ORR activity results from the coordinately unsaturated carbon atoms, as the real ORR active sites, to strongly capture electrons from Pt.

Mn3O4 nanoparticle-decorated hollow mesoporous carbon spheres as an efficient catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction in Zn-air batteries

Hybrids of Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles and hollow carbon spheres prepared from templated pyrolysis of polydopamine were assembled via a straightforward sonication procedure. The resulting hybrids exhibit excellent catalytic activity toward the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in prototype Zn-air batteries. Impressively, these catalysts exhibit higher discharge potential and exceptional stability when compared to commercial Pt-Ru catalysts while simultaneously showing comparable onset potential and maximum current density.

Nanoengineering Carbon Spheres as Nanoreactors for Sustainable Energy Applications

Colloidal carbon sphere nanoreactors have been explored extensively as a class of versatile materials for various applications in energy storage, electrochemical conversion, and catalysis, due to their unique properties such as excellent electrical conductivity, high specific surface area, controlled porosity and permeability, and surface functionality. Here, the latest updated research on colloidal carbon sphere nanoreactor, in terms of both their synthesis and applications, is summarized. Various synthetic strategies are first discussed, including the hard template method, the soft template method, hydrothermal carbonization, the microemulsion polymerization method, and extension of the Stöber method. Then, the functionalization of colloidal carbon sphere nanoreactors, including the nanoengineering of compositions and the surface features, is discussed. Afterward, recent progress in the major applications of colloidal carbon sphere nanoreactors, in the areas of energy storage, electrochemical conversion, and catalysis, is presented. Finally, the perspectives and challenges for future developments are discussed in terms of controlled synthesis and functionalization of the colloidal carbon sphere nanoreactors with tunable structure, and the composition and properties that are desirable for practical applications.

Heterostructured CoO-Co3O4 nanoparticles anchored on nitrogen-doped hollow carbon spheres as cathode catalysts for Li-O2 batteries

Lithium-oxygen batteries have received extensive attention due to their high theoretical energy density and environmental friendliness. Herein, CoO-Co3O4 nanoparticles coated on nitrogen-doped hollow carbon spheres (N-HC@CoO-Co3O4) are prepared by a simple method, and N-HC@CoO-Co3O4 when used as the cathode material for a lithium-oxygen battery shows high catalytic performance. The nitrogen-doped hollow carbon spheres not only ensure an ultra-high specific surface area for the accommodation of the Li2O2 discharge products but also provide more reactive sites. CoO-Co3O4 nanoparticles supported on the surface of the nitrogen-doped hollow carbon spheres can effectively catalyze the formation and decomposition of worm-like Li2O2. The batteries assembled with N-HC@CoO-Co3O4 catalysts exhibit reduced overpotential, improved cycling performance, and high rate capability. Ultra-high discharge capacities of 24 265 mA h g-1 at a current density of 300 mA g-1 and 3622 mA h g-1 at a current density of 1000 mA g-1 are obtained. With a cutoff capacity of 500 mA h g-1, the battery with an N-HC@CoO-Co3O4 electrode can reach more than 112 cycles. This research offers new insights into the design of heterostructured oxide catalysts for Li-O2 batteries.

The mechanistic role of a support-catalyst interface in electrocatalytic water reduction by Co3O4 supported nanocarbon florets

Comprehending the mechanistic involvement of a support-catalyst interface is critical for effective design of industrially relevant electrocatalytic processes such as the alkaline hydrogen evolution reaction (alHER). The understanding of the kinetically sluggish alHER exhibited by both Pt and Pt-group-metal-free catalysts is primarily derived from indirect electrochemical parameters such as the Tafel slope. To address these issues, we establish the critical role of a nanocarbon floret (NCF) based electrochemical support in generating a key cobalt-oxohydroxo (OH-Co[double bond, length as m-dash]O) intermediate during the alHER through operando Raman spectro-electrochemistry. Specifically, interfacial nano-engineering of a newly designed carbon support (NCF) with a spinel Co₃O₄ nanocube catalyst is demonstrated to achieve a facile alHER (-0.46 V@10 mA cm^-2). Such an efficient alHER is mainly attributed to the unique lamellar morphology with a high mesoporous surface area (936 m² g^-1) of the NCF which catalyses the rate-determining water dissociation step and facilitates rapid ion diffusion. The dissociated water drives the formation of the OH-Co[double bond, length as m-dash]O intermediate, spectroscopically captured for the first time through the emergence of a νOH-Co[double bond, length as m-dash]O Raman peak (1074 cm^-1). The subsequent alHER proceeds through the Volmer-Heyrovsky route (119 mV dec^-1) via the T_d Co²⁺↔ Co³⁺↔ Co⁴⁺ oxidative pathway. Concomitant graphitization of the NCF through the disappearance of νsp³C-H (2946 cm^-1) supports the co-operative dynamics at the Co₃O₄-NCF interface. Thus, the NCF positively contributes towards the lowering of the overpotential with a low charge-transfer resistance (R_ct = 35.8 Ω) and high double layer capacitance (C_dl = 410 mF cm^-2).

In situ construction of hollow carbon spheres with N, Co, and Fe co-doping as electrochemical sensors for simultaneous determination of dihydroxybenzene isomers

Control of the active sites/centers plays an important role in the design of novel electrode materials with unusual properties and achievement of sensors with high performance. In this study, three-dimensional (3D) freestanding multi-doped hollow carbon spheres (N-Co-Fe-HCS) with a layer thickness of 30 nm, which contained multiple active sites of the heteroatom N and transition metals (Co and Fe), were synthesized via a simple template method (with SiO2 as the template) and cost-efficient in situ self-polymerization, self-adsorption/reduction and carbonization strategies. Moreover, a series of hollow carbon sphere composites of the same family (N-HCS, N-Co-HCS and N-Fe-HCS) were prepared by this sensible process using the same method and precursors but different doping elements. These differences lead to different active sites/centers from hollow carbon spheres and improved electrocatalytic activities for dihydroxybenzene isomers. Furthermore, N-Co-Fe-HCS as an electrochemical sensor exhibited excellent simultaneous qualitative and quantitative determination performance for catechol (CC) and hydroquinone (HQ). The detection limit and the linear range were 75 nmol L-1 and 0.5-500 μmol L-1 for CC and 80 nmol L-1 and 0.5-1500 μmol L-1 for HQ, respectively. The interference from the components coexisting in river water on the detection of CC and HQ was not observed. These results indicate that high-performance electrochemical sensors can be constructed by in situ multi-element doping into electrode materials to achieve multi-active sites.

Atomic Modulation and Structure Design of Carbons for Bifunctional Electrocatalysis in Metal-Air Batteries

With the extensive research and development of renewable energy technologies, there is an increasing interest in developing metal-free carbons as a new class of bifunctional electrocatalysts for boosting the performance of metal-air batteries. Along with significant understanding of the electrocatalytic nature and the rapid development of techniques, the activities of carbon electrocatalysts are well-tailored by introducing particular dopants/defects and structure regulation. Herein, the recent advances regarding the rational design of carbon-based electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction and oxygen evolution reaction are summarized, with a special focus on the bifunctional applications in Zn-air and Li-air batteries. Specifically, the atomic modulation strategies to regulate the electrocatalytic activities of carbons and structure modification are summarized to gain deep insights into bifunctional mechanisms and boost advanced Zn-air and Li-air batteries. The current challenges and future perspectives are also addressed to accelerate the exploration of promising bifunctional carbon catalysts for renewable energy technologies, particularly metal-air batteries.

Using lithium chloride as a medium to prepare N,P-codoped carbon nanosheets for oxygen reduction and evolution reactions

The N,P-codoped carbon nanosheets prepared using LiCl as the medium possess excellent bifunctional catalytic effects for ORR and OER due to the large specific surface area and hydrophilic surface.

Bioinspired fiber-like porous Cu/N/C electrocatalyst facilitating electron transportation toward oxygen reaction for metal-air batteries

Laccase is one of the most effective biocatalysts for oxygen reduction under physiological conditions. Its unique Cu- and N-based active sites with direct electrical pathways for electrons can guarantee rapid oxygen exchange and reduction. Inspired by this specific structure, we designed and fabricated porous fiber-like Cu/N/C based on MOFs as an ORR catalyst. Precision morphology control of fibers contributed to an increase in the electron transport rate compared with that of Cu/N/C nanoparticles, which could minimize interparticle ohmic contacts and provide direct electrical pathways along with sufficient active sites to catalyze oxygen reduction. The designed Cu/N/C catalyst exhibited similar electrochemical activity to that of a commercially available 20 wt% Pt/C ORR catalyst. Moreover, after being employed as the cathode of aluminium-air batteries, the catalyst outperformed a commercial 5 wt% Pt/C catalyst.

Self-Assembly-Assisted Facile Synthesis of MoS2-Based Hybrid Tubular Nanostructures for Efficient Bifunctional Electrocatalysis

In this work, MoS₂-based hybrid tubular nanostructures are facilely synthesized via a self-assembly-assisted process and evaluated as a bifunctional electrocatalyst for hydrogen evolution reactions (HERs) and oxygen reduction reactions (ORRs). By simply mixing the reactants under ambient conditions, (NH₄)₂MoS₄/polydopamine (PDA) hybrid nanospheres are formed. The protonated dopamine is linked to tetrahedral [MoS₄]^2- via weak N-H···S and O-H···S interactions, causing the PDA nanospheres merging together and forming nanorods under stirring-induced shear force. Moreover, the oxidative polymerization of dopamine proceeds on the surface of the nanorods, whereas it is prohibited inside the nanorods owing to lack of oxygen, leading to outward diffusion of dopamine and hence cavitation. After annealing, the tubular morphology is perfectly retained, while ultrafine MoS₂ monolayers are formed due to the confinement of the framework. Benefiting from these unique structural features, the MoS₂/C hybrid nanotubes possess abundant active sites and high surface area, as well as boost electronic and ionic transport, remarkably enhancing their electrocatalytic activities. The onset and half-wave potentials are 0.91 and 0.82 V, respectively, for ORR, close to those of Pt/C. Moreover, low onset potential and small Tafel slope are also observed for HER, demonstrating the potential of the hybrid nanotubes as a promising non-noble metal bifunctional electrocatalyst.

Multifunctional nanostructured electrocatalysts for energy conversion and storage: current status and perspectives

Electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) have attracted widespread attention because of their important role in the application of various energy storage and conversion devices, such as fuel cells, metal-air batteries and water splitting devices. However, the sluggish kinetics of the HER/OER/ORR and their dependency on expensive noble metal catalysts (e.g., Pt) obstruct their large-scale application. Hence, the development of efficient and robust bifunctional or trifunctional electrocatalysts in nanodimension for both oxygen reduction/evolution and hydrogen evolution reactions is highly desired and challenging for their commercialization in renewable energy technologies. This review describes some recent developments in the discovery of bifunctional or trifunctional nanostructured catalysts with improved performances for application in rechargeable metal-air batteries and fuel cells. The role of the electronic structure and surface redox chemistry of nanocatalysts in the improvement of their performance for the ORR/OER/HER under an alkaline medium is highlighted and the associated reaction mechanisms developed in the recent literature are also summarized.

Advanced Architectures and Relatives of Air Electrodes in Zn-Air Batteries

Zn-air batteries are becoming the promising power sources for portable and wearable electronic devices and hybrid/electric vehicles because of their high specific energy density and the low cost for next-generation green and sustainable energy technologies. An air electrode integrated with an oxygen electrocatalyst is the most important component and inevitably determines the performance and cost of a Zn-air battery. This article presents exciting advances and challenges related to air electrodes and their relatives. After a brief introduction of the Zn-air battery, the architectures and oxygen electrocatalysts of air electrodes and relevant electrolytes are highlighted in primary and rechargeable types with different configurations, respectively. Moreover, the individual components and major issues of flexible Zn-air batteries are also highlighted, along with the strategies to enhance the battery performance. Finally, a perspective for design, preparation, and assembly of air electrodes is proposed for the future innovations of Zn-air batteries with high performance.

Carbon-Based Metal-Free Electrocatalysis for Energy Conversion, Energy Storage, and Environmental Protection

Abstract

Carbon-based metal-free catalysts possess desirable properties such as high earth abundance, low cost, high electrical conductivity, structural tunability, good selectivity, strong stability in acidic/alkaline conditions, and environmental friendliness. Because of these properties, these catalysts have recently received increasing attention in energy and environmental applications. Subsequently, various carbon-based electrocatalysts have been developed to replace noble metal catalysts for low-cost renewable generation and storage of clean energy and environmental protection through metal-free electrocatalysis. This article provides an up-to-date review of this rapidly developing field by critically assessing recent advances in the mechanistic understanding, structure design, and material/device fabrication of metal-free carbon-based electrocatalysts for clean energy conversion/storage and environmental protection, along with discussions on current challenges and perspectives.

Graphical Abstract

A Review of Carbon-Composited Materials as Air-Electrode Bifunctional Electrocatalysts for Metal–Air Batteries

Metal–air batteries (MABs), particularly rechargeable MABs, have gained renewed interests as a potential energy storage/conversion solution due to their high specific energy, low cost, and safety. The development of MABs has, however, been considerably hampered by its relatively low rate capability and its lack of efficient and stable air catalysts in which the former stems mainly from the sluggish kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and the latter stems from the corrosion/oxidation of carbon materials in the presence of oxygen and high electrode potentials. In this review, various carbon-composited bifunctional electrocatalysts are reviewed to summarize progresses in the enhancement of ORR/OER and durability induced by the synergistic effects between carbon and other component(s). Catalyst mechanisms of the reaction processes and associated performance enhancements as well as technical challenges hindering commercialization are also analyzed. To facilitate further research and development, several research directions for overcoming these challenges are also proposed.

Cellulose nanocrystal-derived hollow mesoporous carbon spheres and their application as a metal-free catalyst

In this contribution, we demonstrate the fabrication of hollow mesoporous carbon spheres (HCSs) derived from cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). The HCSs were prepared by templating CNCs onto sacrificial silica spheres followed by heat treatment. Mesoporous carbon spheres result from the removal of the silica spheres by etching. The walls of the HCSs are approximately 4 nm thick and are composed of amorphous and graphitic carbon. The catalytic activity of the HCSs was investigated for the reduction of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) to 4-aminophenol (4-AP) by sodium borohydride (NaBH₄). The present investigation reveals the outstanding catalytic activity of these particles. The reaction rate followed pseudo-first order kinetics with k value of 4.72 × 10^-3 s^-1 and activity parameter of 52.2 s^-1 g^-1, which showed superior performance compared to that of metal nanoparticle and metal nanoparticle-carbon hybrid based catalysts.

Latest advances in supercapacitors: from new electrode materials to novel device designs

Notably, many significant breakthroughs for a new generation of supercapacitors have been reported in recent years, related to theoretical understanding, material synthesis and device designs. Herein, we summarize the state-of-the-art progress toward mechanisms, new materials, and novel device designs for supercapacitors. Firstly, fundamental understanding of the mechanism is mainly focused on the relationship between the structural properties of electrode materials and their electrochemical performances based on some in situ characterization techniques and simulations. Secondly, some emerging electrode materials are discussed, including metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs), MXenes, metal nitrides, black phosphorus, LaMnO₃, and RbAg₄I₅/graphite. Thirdly, the device innovations for the next generation of supercapacitors are provided successively, mainly emphasizing flow supercapacitors, alternating current (AC) line-filtering supercapacitors, redox electrolyte enhanced supercapacitors, metal ion hybrid supercapacitors, micro-supercapacitors (fiber, plane and three-dimensional) and multifunctional supercapacitors including electrochromic supercapacitors, self-healing supercapacitors, piezoelectric supercapacitors, shape-memory supercapacitors, thermal self-protective supercapacitors, thermal self-charging supercapacitors, and photo self-charging supercapacitors. Finally, the future developments and key technical challenges are highlighted regarding further research in this thriving field.

Microwave-assisted synthesis and prototype oxygen reduction electrocatalyst application of N-doped carbon-coated Fe3O4 nanorods

Fe₃O₄ nanorods coated with nitrogen-doped mesoporous carbon (ND-Fe₃O₄@mC) shells of defined thicknesses have been prepared via a new microwave-assisted approach. Microstructural characterization of these ND-Fe₃O₄@mC structures was performed using x-ray diffraction, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Following identification, the electrochemical performance of the catalysts was evaluated using linear sweep voltammetry with a rotating disc electrode system. The present investigation reveals enhanced oxygen reduction reaction catalytic activity and the carbon layer thickness influences oxygen diffusion to the active Fe₃O₄ nanorod core.

Self-Templated Synthesis of Co- and N-Doped Carbon Microtubes Composed of Hollow Nanospheres and Nanotubes for Efficient Oxygen Reduction Reaction

A facile, self-templated strategy for the synthesis of Co- and N-doped carbon microtubular structures composed of nanoscale hollow spheres and nanotubes is proposed. Cobalt oxalate microtubes serve simultaneously as the solid cobalt precursor for the in situ conversion reaction to metal-organic framework and self-templates for the 1D tubular structure.

Controllable synthesis of nitrogen-doped mesoporous carbons for supercapacitor applications

Nitrogen-doped mesoporous carbons have been controllably synthesized through a solvent evaporation induced self-assembly method. The carbons show 70% of the capacitor retained at current density of 50 A g⁻¹ and no capacitance loss over 5000 cycles.

Facile and green decoration of Pd nanoparticles on macroporous carbon by polyoxometalate with enhanced electrocatalytic ability

A well-defined Pd nanoparticles@polyoxometalates/macroporous carbon (Pd@POMs/MPC) tri-component nanohybrid has been developed using a facile, green, and one-pot synthesis method.

Polyoxometalates-mediated facile synthesis of Pt nanoparticles anchored on an ordered mesoporous carbon for electrochemical applications

A green and facile strategy to develop electrochemical sensors through the rational design of platinum nanoparticles@polyoxometalate decorating ordered mesoporous carbon (Pt@POMs-OMC) nanohybrids.

Cobalt nanoparticles encapsulated in N-doped graphene nanoshells as an efficient cathode electrocatalyst for a mechanical rechargeable zinc–air battery

Air-cathodes with properties of efficiency, durability and low cost are essential for high performance metal–air batteries and fuel cells for practical applications.