1
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Doerner B, Della Sala F, Wang S, Webb SJ. Reaction, Recognition, Relay: Anhydride Hydrolysis Reported by Conformationally Responsive Fluorinated Foldamers in Micelles. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202405924. [PMID: 38703400 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202405924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Natural membrane receptors are proteins that can report on changes in the concentration of external chemical messengers. Messenger binding to a receptor produces conformational changes that are relayed through the membrane into the cell; this information allows cells to adapt to changes in their environment. Artificial membrane receptors (R)-1 and (S)-1 are helical α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) foldamers that replicate key parts of this information relay. Solution-phase 19F NMR spectroscopy of zinc(II)-capped receptor 1, either in organic solvent or in membrane-mimetic micelles, showed messenger binding produced an enrichment of either left- or right-handed screw-sense; the chirality of the bound messenger was relayed to the other receptor terminus. Furthermore, in situ production of a chemical messenger in the external aqueous environment could be detected in real-time by a racemic mixture of receptor 1 in micelles. The hydrolysis of insoluble anhydrides produced carboxylate in the aqueous phase, which bound to the receptors and gave a distinct 19F NMR output from inside the hydrophobic region of the micelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedicte Doerner
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Flavio Della Sala
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Siyuan Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Simon J Webb
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
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2
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Tilly DP, McColl C, Hu M, Vitórica-Yrezábal IJ, Webb SJ. Enantioselective conjugate addition to nitroolefins catalysed by helical peptides with a single remote stereogenic centre. Org Biomol Chem 2023; 21:9562-9571. [PMID: 38009076 DOI: 10.1039/d3ob01594g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
Two short pentapeptides rich in α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) residues have been shown to act as enantioselective organocatalysts for the conjugate addition of nucleophiles to nitroolefins. An L-alanine terminated peptide, (Aib)4(L-Ala)NHtBu, which has neither functionalised sidechains nor a highly designed reactive site, used an exposed N-terminal primary amine and the amide bonds of the backbone to mediate catalysis. Folding of this peptide into a 310 helical structure was observed by crystallography. Folding into a helix relays the conformational preference of the chiral alanine residue at the C-terminus to the primary amine at the N-terminus, 0.9 nm distant. The chiral environment and defined shape produced by the 310 helix brings the amine site into proximity to two exposed amide NHs. Reaction scope studies implied that the amine acts as a Brønsted base and the solvent-exposed NH groups of the helix, shown to weakly bind β-nitrostyrene, are needed to obtain an enantiomeric excess. Replacement of L-alanine with D-phenylalanine gave (Aib)4(D-Phe)NHtBu, a peptide that now catalysed the benchmark reaction with the opposite enantioselectivity. These studies show how achiral residues can play a key role in enantioselective catalysis by peptides through the promotion of folding.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Tilly
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | - Catherine McColl
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | - Mingda Hu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | | | - Simon J Webb
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
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3
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Tilly DP, Cullen W, Zhong H, Jamagne R, Vitórica-Yrezábal I, Webb SJ. α-Amino-iso-butyric acid foldamers terminated with rhodium(I) N-heterocyclic carbene catalysts. Chemistry 2021; 28:e202104293. [PMID: 34932229 PMCID: PMC9305545 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202104293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
To investigate how remotely induced changes in ligand folding might affect catalysis by organometallic complexes, dynamic α‐amino‐iso‐butyric acid (Aib) peptide foldamers bearing rhodium(I) N‐heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes have been synthesized and studied. X‐ray crystallography of a foldamer with an N‐terminal azide and a C‐terminal Rh(NHC)(Cl)(diene) complex showed a racemate with a chiral axis in the Rh(NHC) complex and a distorted 310 helical body. Replacing the azide with either one or two chiral L‐α‐methylvaline (L‐αMeVal) residues gave diastereoisomeric foldamers that each possessed point, helical and axial chirality. NMR spectroscopy revealed an unequal ratio of diastereoisomers for some foldamers, indicating that the chiral conformational preference of the N‐terminal residue(s) was relayed down the 1 nm helical body to the axially chiral Rh(NHC) complex. Although the remote chiral residue(s) did not affect the stereoselectivity of hydrosilylation reactions catalysed by these foldamers, these studies suggest a potential pathway towards remote conformational control of organometallic catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Tilly
- The University of Manchester, Department of Chemistry, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - William Cullen
- The University of Manchester, Department of Chemistry, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Heng Zhong
- The University of Manchester, Department of Chemistry, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Romain Jamagne
- The University of Manchester, Department of Chemistry, UNITED KINGDOM
| | | | - Simon John Webb
- University of Manchester, School of Chemistry and MIB, 131 Princess St, M1 7DN, Manchester, UNITED KINGDOM
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4
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Lizio MG, Campana M, De Poli M, Jefferies DF, Cullen W, Andrushchenko V, Chmel NP, Bouř P, Khalid S, Clayden J, Blanch E, Rodger A, Webb SJ. Insight into the Mechanism of Action and Peptide-Membrane Interactions of Aib-Rich Peptides: Multitechnique Experimental and Theoretical Analysis. Chembiochem 2021; 22:1656-1667. [PMID: 33411956 PMCID: PMC8248331 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The increase in resistant bacterial strains necessitates the identification of new antimicrobial molecules. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are an attractive option because of evidence that bacteria cannot easily develop resistance to AMPs. The peptaibols, a class of naturally occurring AMPs, have shown particular promise as antimicrobial drugs, but their development has been hindered by their mechanism of action not being clearly understood. To explore how peptaibols might interact with membranes, circular dichroism, vibrational circular dichroism, linear dichroism, Raman spectroscopy, Raman optical activity, neutron reflectivity and molecular dynamics simulations have been used to study a small library of peptaibol mimics, the Aib-rich peptides. All the peptides studied quickly partitioned and oriented in membranes, and we found evidence of chiral interactions between the phospholipids and membrane-embedded peptides. The protocols presented in this paper open new ground by showing how chiro-optical spectroscopies can throw light on the mechanism of action of AMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mario Campana
- ISIS Neutron and Muon SourceRutherford Appleton Laboratory Harwell DidcotOxfordOX11 0QXUK
| | - Matteo De Poli
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of ManchesterOxford RoadManchesterM13 9PLUK
| | | | - William Cullen
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of ManchesterOxford RoadManchesterM13 9PLUK
- Manchester Institute of BiotechnologyUniversity of Manchester131 Princess St.ManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Valery Andrushchenko
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and BiochemistryAcademy of SciencesFlemingovo náměstí 216610Prague 6Czech Republic
| | - Nikola P. Chmel
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of WarwickCoventryCV4 7ALUK
| | - Petr Bouř
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and BiochemistryAcademy of SciencesFlemingovo náměstí 216610Prague 6Czech Republic
| | - Syma Khalid
- School of ChemistryUniversity of Southampton HighfieldSouthamptonSO17 1BJUK
| | - Jonathan Clayden
- School of ChemistryUniversity of BristolCantock's CloseBristolBS8 1TSUK
| | - Ewan Blanch
- School of ScienceRMIT UniversityGPO Box 2476MelbourneVictoria3001Australia
| | - Alison Rodger
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of WarwickCoventryCV4 7ALUK
- Department of Molecular SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydneyNSW 2109Australia
| | - Simon J. Webb
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of ManchesterOxford RoadManchesterM13 9PLUK
- Manchester Institute of BiotechnologyUniversity of Manchester131 Princess St.ManchesterM1 7DNUK
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5
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Rohmer M, Ucak Ö, Fredrick R, Binder WH. Chiral amines as initiators for ROP and their chiral induction on poly(2-aminoisobutyric acid) chains. Polym Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1py01021b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Chirality induction by chiral amines in poly(amino acid)s by ring opening polymerization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Rohmer
- Martin-Luther University Halle Wittenberg, Chair of Macromolecular Chemistry, D-06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Özgün Ucak
- Martin-Luther University Halle Wittenberg, Chair of Macromolecular Chemistry, D-06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Rahul Fredrick
- Martin-Luther University Halle Wittenberg, Chair of Polymer Reaction Engineering, D-06099 Halle, Germany
| | - Wolfgang H. Binder
- Martin-Luther University Halle Wittenberg, Chair of Macromolecular Chemistry, D-06120 Halle, Germany
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6
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Zieleniewski F, Woolfson DN, Clayden J. Automated solid-phase concatenation of Aib residues to form long, water-soluble, helical peptides. Chem Commun (Camb) 2020; 56:12049-12052. [PMID: 32902536 DOI: 10.1039/d0cc04698a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Iterative coupling of 2-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) has been achieved rapidly and efficiently using automated solid-phase peptide synthesis, employing diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIC) in the presence of ethyl cyanohydroxyiminoacetate (Oxyma). This method has allowed the first total synthesis of the fungal antibiotic Cephaibol D, and enabled the synthesis of water-soluble oligomers of Aib containing up to an unprecedented sequence of 17 consecutive Aib residues. Conformational analysis of the Aib oligomers in aqueous solution shows a length dependence in their CD spectra, with oligomers of more than 14 Aib residues apparently adopting structured helical conformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis Zieleniewski
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, UK.
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7
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Costil R, Fernández-Nieto F, Atkinson RC, Clayden J. α-Methyl phenylglycines by asymmetric α-arylation of alanine and their effect on the conformational preference of helical Aib foldamers. Org Biomol Chem 2019; 16:2757-2761. [PMID: 29595846 DOI: 10.1039/c8ob00551f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
α-Arylated alanine derivatives were made enantioselectively by migratory rearrangement of a urea derivative using (R,R)-pseudoephedrine as a chiral auxiliary. Incorporation of a single residue of the product α-methyl phenylglycine into an otherwise achiral oligomer of aminoisobutyric acid oligomer induced a preferred screw sense, detectable by a NMR reporter located at the remote terminus of the oligomer. The magnitude of the screw sense induction was greater when the chiral residue was located at the N-terminus of the foldamer, and in some cases the sense of induction was opposite to that of related α-methylated amino acids with α-substituents other than aryl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Costil
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK.
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8
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Lizio MG, Andrushchenko V, Pike SJ, Peters AD, Whitehead GFS, Vitórica-Yrezábal IJ, Mutter ST, Clayden J, Bouř P, Blanch EW, Webb SJ. Optically Active Vibrational Spectroscopy of α-Aminoisobutyric Acid Foldamers in Organic Solvents and Phospholipid Bilayers. Chemistry 2018; 24:9399-9408. [PMID: 29745985 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201801121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Helical α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) foldamers show great potential as devices for the communication of conformational information across phospholipid bilayers, but determining their conformation in bilayers remains a challenge. In the present study, Raman, Raman optical activity (ROA), infrared (IR) and vibrational circular dichroism (VCD) spectroscopies have been used to analyze the conformational preferences of Aib foldamers in solution and when interacting with bilayers. A 310 -helix marker band at 1665-1668 cm-1 in Raman spectra was used to show that net helical content increased strongly with oligomer length. ROA and VCD spectra of chiral Aib foldamers provided the chiroptical signature for both left- and right-handed 310 -helices in organic solvents, with VCD establishing that foldamer screw-sense was preserved when the foldamers became embedded within bilayers. However, the population distribution between different secondary structures was perturbed by the chiral phospholipid. These studies indicate that ROA and VCD spectroscopies are valuable tools for the study of biomimetic structures, such as artificial signal transduction molecules, in phospholipid bilayers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Giovanna Lizio
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Valery Andrushchenko
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo náměstí 2, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Sarah J Pike
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.,Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, UK
| | - Anna D Peters
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - George F S Whitehead
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | | | - Shaun T Mutter
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - Jonathan Clayden
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, UK
| | - Petr Bouř
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo náměstí 2, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Ewan W Blanch
- School of Science, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia
| | - Simon J Webb
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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9
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Adam C, Peters AD, Lizio MG, Whitehead GFS, Diemer V, Cooper JA, Cockroft SL, Clayden J, Webb SJ. The Role of Terminal Functionality in the Membrane and Antibacterial Activity of Peptaibol-Mimetic Aib Foldamers. Chemistry 2018; 24:2249-2256. [PMID: 29210477 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201705299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Peptaibols are peptide antibiotics that typically feature an N-terminal acetyl cap, a C-terminal aminoalcohol, and a high proportion of α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) residues. To establish how each feature might affect the membrane-activity of peptaibols, biomimetic Aib foldamers with different lengths and terminal groups were synthesised. Vesicle assays showed that long foldamers (eleven Aib residues) with hydrophobic termini had the highest ionophoric activity. C-terminal acids or primary amides inhibited activity, while replacement of an N-terminal acetyl with an azide group made little difference. Crystallography showed that N3 Aib11 CH2 OTIPS folded into a 310 helix 2.91 nm long, which is close to the bilayer hydrophobic width. Planar bilayer conductance assays showed discrete ion channels only for N-acetylated foldamers. However long foldamers with hydrophobic termini had the highest antibacterial activity, indicating that ionophoric activity in vesicles was a better indicator of antibacterial activity than the observation of discrete ion channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Adam
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, UK
| | - Anna D Peters
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - M Giovanna Lizio
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - George F S Whitehead
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Vincent Diemer
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - James A Cooper
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FJ, UK
| | - Scott L Cockroft
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FJ, UK
| | - Jonathan Clayden
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, UK
| | - Simon J Webb
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
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Jones JE, Diemer V, Adam C, Raftery J, Ruscoe RE, Sengel JT, Wallace MI, Bader A, Cockroft SL, Clayden J, Webb SJ. Length-Dependent Formation of Transmembrane Pores by 310-Helical α-Aminoisobutyric Acid Foldamers. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:688-95. [PMID: 26699898 PMCID: PMC4752191 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b12057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
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The synthetic biology toolbox lacks
extendable and conformationally
controllable yet easy-to-synthesize building blocks that are long
enough to span membranes. To meet this need, an iterative synthesis
of α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) oligomers was used to create
a library of homologous rigid-rod 310-helical foldamers,
which have incrementally increasing lengths and functionalizable N-
and C-termini. This library was used to probe the inter-relationship
of foldamer length, self-association strength, and ionophoric ability,
which is poorly understood. Although foldamer self-association in
nonpolar chloroform increased with length, with a ∼14-fold
increase in dimerization constant from Aib6 to Aib11, ionophoric activity in bilayers showed a stronger length
dependence, with the observed rate constant for Aib11 ∼70-fold
greater than that of Aib6. The strongest ionophoric activity
was observed for foldamers with >10 Aib residues, which have end-to-end
distances greater than the hydrophobic width of the bilayers used
(∼2.8 nm); X-ray crystallography showed that Aib11 is 2.93 nm long. These studies suggest that being long enough to
span the membrane is more important for good ionophoric activity than
strong self-association in the bilayer. Planar bilayer conductance
measurements showed that Aib11 and Aib13, but
not Aib7, could form pores. This pore-forming behavior
is strong evidence that Aibm (m ≥ 10) building blocks can span bilayers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Jones
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester , Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester , 131 Princess St, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Vincent Diemer
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester , Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester , 131 Princess St, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine Adam
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester , Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom.,School of Chemistry, University of Bristol , Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - James Raftery
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester , Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca E Ruscoe
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester , Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Jason T Sengel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Mark I Wallace
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Antoine Bader
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh , Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom
| | - Scott L Cockroft
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh , Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Clayden
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester , Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom.,School of Chemistry, University of Bristol , Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Simon J Webb
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester , Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester , 131 Princess St, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
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