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Zhang H, Daněk O, Makarov D, Rádl S, Kim D, Ledvinka J, Vychodilová K, Hlaváč J, Lefèbre J, Denis M, Rademacher C, Ménová P. Drug-like Inhibitors of DC-SIGN Based on a Quinolone Scaffold. ACS Med Chem Lett 2022; 13:935-942. [DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.2c00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hengxi Zhang
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- Freie Universität Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Biocenter 5, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ondřej Daněk
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technická 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Dmytro Makarov
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technická 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Stanislav Rádl
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technická 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
- Zentiva a.s., U Kabelovny 130, 10237 Prague 10, Czech Republic
| | - Dongyoon Kim
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Biocenter 5, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jiří Ledvinka
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technická 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Kristýna Vychodilová
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University, Hněvotínská 5, 77900 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Hlaváč
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Tř. 17. Listopadu 12, 77146 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jonathan Lefèbre
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Biocenter 5, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Maxime Denis
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Biocenter 5, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph Rademacher
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- Freie Universität Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Biocenter 5, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Petra Ménová
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technická 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
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2
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Wawrzinek R, Wamhoff EC, Lefebre J, Rentzsch M, Bachem G, Domeniconi G, Schulze J, Fuchsberger FF, Zhang H, Modenutti C, Schnirch L, Marti MA, Schwardt O, Bräutigam M, Guberman M, Hauck D, Seeberger PH, Seitz O, Titz A, Ernst B, Rademacher C. A Remote Secondary Binding Pocket Promotes Heteromultivalent Targeting of DC-SIGN. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:18977-18988. [PMID: 34748320 PMCID: PMC8603350 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c07235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
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Dendritic cells (DC)
are antigen-presenting cells coordinating
the interplay of the innate and the adaptive immune response. The
endocytic C-type lectin receptors DC-SIGN and Langerin display expression
profiles restricted to distinct DC subtypes and have emerged as prime
targets for next-generation immunotherapies and anti-infectives. Using
heteromultivalent liposomes copresenting mannosides bearing aromatic
aglycones with natural glycan ligands, we serendipitously discovered
striking cooperativity effects for DC-SIGN+ but not for
Langerin+ cell lines. Mechanistic investigations combining
NMR spectroscopy with molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations
led to the identification of a secondary binding pocket for the glycomimetics.
This pocket, located remotely of DC-SIGN’s carbohydrate bindings
site, can be leveraged by heteromultivalent avidity enhancement. We
further present preliminary evidence that the aglycone allosterically
activates glycan recognition and thereby contributes to DC-SIGN-specific
cell targeting. Our findings have important implications for both
translational and basic glycoscience, showcasing heteromultivalent
targeting of DCs to improve specificity and supporting potential allosteric
regulation of DC-SIGN and CLRs in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Wawrzinek
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Eike-Christian Wamhoff
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jonathan Lefebre
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mareike Rentzsch
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gunnar Bachem
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt University of Berlin, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gary Domeniconi
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt University of Berlin, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jessica Schulze
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Felix F Fuchsberger
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Hengxi Zhang
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Carlos Modenutti
- Departamento de Química Biológica e IQUIBICEN-CONICET, Universidad de Buenos Aires, C1428EHA Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Lennart Schnirch
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcelo A Marti
- Departamento de Química Biológica e IQUIBICEN-CONICET, Universidad de Buenos Aires, C1428EHA Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Oliver Schwardt
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Maria Bräutigam
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Mónica Guberman
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Dirk Hauck
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research, Campus Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Peter H Seeberger
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Oliver Seitz
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt University of Berlin, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexander Titz
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research, Campus Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Beat Ernst
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Rademacher
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie University of Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany.,University of Vienna, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria.,University of Vienna, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Genetics, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, Biocenter 5, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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3
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Xu YD, Lai RY, Procházková E, Stenzel MH. Saturation Transfer Difference NMR Spectroscopy for the Elucidation of Supramolecular Albumin-Polymer Interactions. ACS Macro Lett 2021; 10:819-824. [PMID: 35549199 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Albumin has consistently demonstrated its potential for enhancing the delivery of drugs and polymer-drug conjugates, binding via supramolecular forces within its multiple binding sites. Herein, we introduce saturation transfer difference (STD-NMR) as a method to identify the interactions between a polymer library and bovine serum albumin (BSA). With STD-NMR, the binding ability of polymers can be quickly screened by focusing on their individual structural features, making this technique more suitable for high throughput screening in comparison to traditional fluorescence studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- You D. Xu
- Centre for Advanced Macromolecular Design, School of Chemistry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia
| | - Rebecca Y. Lai
- Centre for Advanced Macromolecular Design, School of Chemistry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia
| | - Eliška Procházková
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 166 10, Czech Republic
| | - Martina H. Stenzel
- Centre for Advanced Macromolecular Design, School of Chemistry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia
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4
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Valverde P, Martínez JD, Cañada FJ, Ardá A, Jiménez-Barbero J. Molecular Recognition in C-Type Lectins: The Cases of DC-SIGN, Langerin, MGL, and L-Sectin. Chembiochem 2020; 21:2999-3025. [PMID: 32426893 PMCID: PMC7276794 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Carbohydrates play a pivotal role in intercellular communication processes. In particular, glycan antigens are key for sustaining homeostasis, helping leukocytes to distinguish damaged tissues and invading pathogens from healthy tissues. From a structural perspective, this cross-talk is fairly complex, and multiple membrane proteins guide these recognition processes, including lectins and Toll-like receptors. Since the beginning of this century, lectins have become potential targets for therapeutics for controlling and/or avoiding the progression of pathologies derived from an incorrect immune outcome, including infectious processes, cancer, or autoimmune diseases. Therefore, a detailed knowledge of these receptors is mandatory for the development of specific treatments. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about four key C-type lectins whose importance has been steadily growing in recent years, focusing in particular on how glycan recognition takes place at the molecular level, but also looking at recent progresses in the quest for therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Valverde
- CIC bioGUNE, Basque Research Technology Alliance, BRTA, Bizkaia Technology park, Building 800, 48160, Derio, Spain
| | - J Daniel Martínez
- CIC bioGUNE, Basque Research Technology Alliance, BRTA, Bizkaia Technology park, Building 800, 48160, Derio, Spain
| | - F Javier Cañada
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Avda Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Ardá
- CIC bioGUNE, Basque Research Technology Alliance, BRTA, Bizkaia Technology park, Building 800, 48160, Derio, Spain
| | - Jesús Jiménez-Barbero
- CIC bioGUNE, Basque Research Technology Alliance, BRTA, Bizkaia Technology park, Building 800, 48160, Derio, Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, 48009, Bilbao, Spain
- Department of Organic Chemistry II, Faculty of Science and Technology, UPV-EHU, 48940, Leioa, Spain
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5
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In silico and saturation transfer difference NMR approaches to unravel the binding mode of an andrographolide derivative to K-Ras oncoprotein. Future Med Chem 2020; 12:1611-1631. [PMID: 32892640 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2020-0104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Andrographolide and its benzylidene derivatives, SRJ09 and SRJ23, potentially bind oncogenic K-Ras to exert anticancer activity. Their molecular interactions with K-Ras oncoproteins that lead to effective biological activity are of major interest. Methods & results: In silico docking and molecular dynamics simulation were performed using Glide and Desmond, respectively; while saturation transfer difference NMR was performed using GDP-bound K-RasG12V. SRJ23 was found to bind strongly and selectively to K-RasG12V, by anchoring to a binding pocket (namely p2) principally via hydrogen bond and hydrophobic interactions. The saturation transfer difference NMR analysis revealed the proximity of protons of functional moieties in SRJ23 to K-RasG12V, suggesting positive binding. Conclusion: SRJ23 binds strongly and interacts stably with K-RasG12V to exhibit its inhibitory activity.
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6
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Barman S, Das G, Mondal P, Pradhan K, Bhunia D, Khan J, Kar C, Ghosh S. Power of Tyrosine Assembly in Microtubule Stabilization and Neuroprotection Fueled by Phenol Appendages. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:1506-1516. [PMID: 30565916 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Microtubules play a crucial role in maintenance of structure, function, axonal extensions, cargo transport, and polarity of neurons. During neurodegenerative diseases, microtubule structure and function get severely damaged due to destabilization of its major structural proteins. Therefore, design and development of molecules that stabilize these microtubule networks have always been an important strategy for development of potential neurotherapeutic candidates. Toward this venture, we designed and developed a tyrosine rich trisubstituted triazine molecule (TY3) that stabilizes microtubules through close interaction with the taxol binding site. Detailed structural investigations revealed that the phenolic protons are the key interacting partners of tubulin. Interestingly, we found that this molecule is noncytotoxic in PC12 derived neurons, stabilizes microtubules against nocodazole induced depolymerization, and increases expression of acetylated tubulin (Ac-K40), an important marker of tubulin stability. Further, results show that TY3 significantly induces neurite sprouting as compared to the untreated control as well as the two other analogues (TS3 and TF3). It also possesses anti-Aβ fibrillation properties as confirmed by ThT assay, which leads to its neuroprotective effect against amyloidogenic induced toxicity caused through nerve growth factor (NGF) deprivation in PC12 derived neurons. Remarkably, our results reveal that it reduces the expression of TrkA (pY490) associated with NGF deprived amyloidogenesis, which further proves that it is a potent amyloid β inhibitor. Moreover, it promoted the health of the rat primary cortical neurons through higher expression of key neuronal markers such as MAP2 and Tuj1. Finally, we observed that it has good serum stability and has the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Overall, our work indicates the importance of phenolic -OH in promoting neuroprotection and its importance could be implemented in the development of future neurotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surajit Barman
- Organic & Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata, 700032 West Bengal, India
| | - Gaurav Das
- Organic & Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata, 700032 West Bengal, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Campus 4 Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Prasenjit Mondal
- Organic & Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata, 700032 West Bengal, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Campus 4 Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Krishnangsu Pradhan
- Organic & Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata, 700032 West Bengal, India
| | - Debmalya Bhunia
- Organic & Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata, 700032 West Bengal, India
| | - Juhee Khan
- Organic & Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata, 700032 West Bengal, India
| | - Chirantan Kar
- Organic & Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata, 700032 West Bengal, India
| | - Surajit Ghosh
- Organic & Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata, 700032 West Bengal, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Campus 4 Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700032, India
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7
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Methylation of selenocysteine catalysed by thiopurine S-methyltransferase. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1863:182-190. [PMID: 30308221 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Revised: 08/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Methylation driven by thiopurine S-methylatransferase (TPMT) is crucial for deactivation of cytostatic and immunosuppressant thiopurines. Despite its remarkable integration into clinical practice, the endogenous function of TPMT is unknown. METHODS To address the role of TPMT in methylation of selenium compounds, we established the research on saturation transfer difference (STD) and 77Se NMR spectroscopy, fluorescence measurements, as well as computational molecular docking simulations. RESULTS Using STD NMR spectroscopy and fluorescence measurements of tryptophan residues in TPMT, we determined the binding of selenocysteine (Sec) to human recombinant TPMT. By comparing binding characteristics of Sec in the absence and in the presence of methyl donor, we confirmed S-adenosylmethionine (SAM)-induced conformational changes in TPMT. Molecular docking analysis positioned Sec into the active site of TPMT with orientation relevant for methylation reaction. Se-methylselenocysteine (MeSec), produced in the enzymatic reaction, was detected by 77Se NMR spectroscopy. A direct interaction between Sec and SAM in the active site of rTPMT and the formation of both products, MeSec and S-adenosylhomocysteine, was demonstrated using NMR spectroscopy. CONCLUSIONS The present study provides evidence on in vitro methylation of Sec by rTPMT in a SAM-dependant manner. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Our results suggest novel role of TPMT and demonstrate new insights into enzymatic modifications of the 21st amino acid.
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Bavireddi H, Vasudeva Murthy R, Gade M, Sangabathuni S, Chaudhary PM, Alex C, Lepenies B, Kikkeri R. Understanding carbohydrate-protein interactions using homologous supramolecular chiral Ru(ii)-glyconanoclusters. NANOSCALE 2016; 8:19696-19702. [PMID: 27874116 DOI: 10.1039/c6nr06431k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Multivalent glycodendrimers make promising tools to tackle the basic and translational research in the field of carbohydrate-mediated interactions. Despite advances in glycodendrimers and glycopolymers, the multivalent probes available to date are still far from being ideal biological mimics. This work demonstrates the inherent chirality of glycodendrimers to be one of the promising factors to generate different spatial carbohydrate micro-environments to modulate specific carbohydrate-protein interactions. By exploiting the host-guest strategy, chiral Ru(ii) complexes (Δ and Λ) and mannose capped β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), we generated a library of homologous metallo-glycodendrimers (MGDs) with sizes of 50-70 nm. These nanoclusters can enantioselectively bind to specific C-type lectins and displayed selectivity in cellular uptake. We also discovered their potential clathrin-mediated endocytotic pathway in DC-SIGN and SIGNR3-transfected cell lines. Finally, in vivo biodistribution and sequestration of MGDs was determined to understand the role of chirality mediated spatial arrangement in carbohydrate-mediated interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harikrishna Bavireddi
- Indian Institution of Science Education and Research, Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, India.
| | | | - Madhuri Gade
- Indian Institution of Science Education and Research, Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, India.
| | - Sivakoti Sangabathuni
- Indian Institution of Science Education and Research, Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, India.
| | | | - Catherine Alex
- Indian Institution of Science Education and Research, Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, India.
| | - Bernd Lepenies
- University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Immunology Unit & Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, Hannover, Germany
| | - Raghavendra Kikkeri
- Indian Institution of Science Education and Research, Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, India.
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