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Ledwon P, Lapkowski M. The Role of Electrochemical and Spectroelectrochemical Techniques in the Preparation and Characterization of Conjugated Polymers: From Polyaniline to Modern Organic Semiconductors. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14194173. [PMID: 36236121 PMCID: PMC9570781 DOI: 10.3390/polym14194173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This review article presents different electrochemical and spectroelectrochemical techniques used to investigate conjugated polymers. The development of this research area is presented from an over 40-year perspective-the period of research carried out by Professor Mieczyslaw Lapkowski. Initial research involved polymers derived from simple aromatic compounds, such as polyaniline. Since then, scientific advances in the field of conductive polymers have led to the development of so-called organic electronics. Electrochemical and spectroelectrochemical methods have a great influence in the development of organic semiconductors. Their potential for explaining many phenomena is discussed and the most relevant examples are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemyslaw Ledwon
- Department of Physical Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Mieczyslaw Lapkowski
- Department of Physical Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Centre for Organic and Nanohybrid Electronics, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 22B, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences, M. Curie-Sklodowskiej 34, 41-819 Zabrze, Poland
- Correspondence:
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Xu J, Deng Z, Wu B, Lin M, Chen D. Synthesis and characterization of viologen functionalized fluorene-containing poly(arylene ether ketone)s for polymer batteries. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Shah KW, Wang SX, Soo DXY, Xu J. Viologen-Based Electrochromic Materials: From Small Molecules, Polymers and Composites to Their Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:polym11111839. [PMID: 31717323 PMCID: PMC6918392 DOI: 10.3390/polym11111839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 10/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Organic materials have gained considerable attention for electrochromic (EC) applications owing to improved EC performance and good processability. As a class of well-recognized organic EC materials, viologens have received persistent attention due to the structural versatility and property tunability, and are major active EC components for most of the marketed EC devices. Over the past two decades, extensive efforts have been made to design and synthesize different types of viologen-based materials with enhanced EC properties. This review summarizes chemical structures, preparation and EC properties of various latest viologen-based electrochromes, including small viologen derivatives, main-chain viologen-based polymers, conjugated polymers with viologen side-chains and viologen-based organic/inorganic composites. The performance enhancement mechanisms are concisely discussed. The current marketed viologens-based electrochromic devices (ECDs) are briefly introduced and an outlook on the challenges and future exploration directions for viologen-based materials and their ECDs are also proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwok Wei Shah
- Department of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore, 4 Architecture Drive, Singapore 117566, Singapore
- Correspondence: (K.W.S.); (J.X.)
| | - Su-Xi Wang
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08-03, Singapore 138634, Singapore; (S.-X.W.); (D.X.Y.S.)
| | - Debbie Xiang Yun Soo
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08-03, Singapore 138634, Singapore; (S.-X.W.); (D.X.Y.S.)
| | - Jianwei Xu
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08-03, Singapore 138634, Singapore; (S.-X.W.); (D.X.Y.S.)
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 3 Science Drive 3, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- Correspondence: (K.W.S.); (J.X.)
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Dmitrieva E, Rosenkranz M, Alesanco Y, Viñuales A. The reduction mechanism of p-cyanophenylviologen in PVA-borax gel polyelectrolyte-based bicolor electrochromic devices. Electrochim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2018.09.137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Multi-colored electrochromic devices based on mixed mono- and bi-substituted 4,4′-bipyridine derivatives containing an ester group. J APPL ELECTROCHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10800-018-1190-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Zeng Z, Zhang W, Arvapalli DM, Bloom B, Sheardy A, Mabe T, Liu Y, Ji Z, Chevva H, Waldeck DH, Wei J. A fluorescence-electrochemical study of carbon nanodots (CNDs) in bio- and photoelectronic applications and energy gap investigation. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 19:20101-20109. [PMID: 28726895 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp02875j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Carbon nanodots (CNDs) have attracted great attention due to their superior solubility, biocompatibility, tunable photoluminescence, and opto-electronic properties. This work describes a new fluorescence-based spectroelectrochemistry approach to simultaneously study the photoluminescence and wavelength dependent photocurrent of microwave synthesized CNDs. The fluorescence of CNDs shows selective quenching upon a reversible redox couple, ferricyanide/ferrocyanide, reaction during cyclic voltammetry. The CND modified gold slide electrode demonstrates wavelength dependent photocurrent generation during the fluorescence-electrochemical study, suggesting the potential application of CNDs in photoelectronics. UV-Vis absorption and electrochemistry are used to quantify the energy gap of the CNDs, and then to calibrate a Hückel model for CNDs' electronic energy levels. The Hückel (or tight binding) model treatment of an individual CND as a molecule combines the conjugated π states (C[double bond, length as m-dash]C) with the functional groups (C[double bond, length as m-dash]O, C-O, and COOH) associated with the surface electronic states. This experimental and theoretical investigation of CNDs provides a new perspective on the optoelectronic properties of CNDs and should aid in their development for practical use in biomedicine, chemical sensing, and photoelectric devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Zeng
- Department of Nanoscience, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27401, USA.
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Kuo CW, Lee PY. Electrosynthesis of Copolymers Based on 1,3,5-Tris(N-Carbazolyl)Benzene and 2,2'-Bithiophene and Their Applications in Electrochromic Devices. Polymers (Basel) 2017; 9:E518. [PMID: 30965819 PMCID: PMC6418989 DOI: 10.3390/polym9100518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Poly(1,3,5-tris(N-carbazolyl)benzene) (PtnCz) and three copolymers based on 1,3,5-tris(N-carbazolyl)benzene (tnCz) and 2,2'-bithiophene (bTp) were electrochemically synthesized. The anodic P(tnCz1-bTp2) film with a tnCz/bTp feed molar ratio of 1/2 showed four colors (light orange at 0.0 V, yellowish-orange at 0.7 V, yellowish-green at 0.8 V, and blue at 1.1 V) from the neutral state to oxidized states. The optical contrast (∆T%) and coloration efficiency (η) of the P(tnCz1-bTp2) film were measured as 48% and 112 cm²∙C-¹, respectively, at 696 nm. Electrochromic devices (ECDs) based on PtnCz, P(tnCz1-bTp1), P(tnCz1-bTp2), P(tnCz1-bTp4), and PbTp films as anodic polymer layers and poly(3,4-dihydro-3,3-dimethyl-2H-thieno[3,4-b-1,4]dioxepin) (PProDOT-Me₂) as cathodic polymer layers were assembled. P(tnCz1-bTp2)/PProDOT-Me₂ ECD showed three various colors (saffron yellow, yellowish-blue, and dark blue) at potentials ranging from -0.3 to 1.5 V. In addition, P(tnCz1-bTp2)/PProDOT-Me₂ ECD showed a high ∆T% value (40% at 630 nm) and a high coloration efficiency (519 cm²∙C-¹ at 630 nm).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Wen Kuo
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan.
| | - Po-Ying Lee
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan.
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Pathiranage TMSK, Dissanayake DS, Niermann CN, Ren Y, Biewer MC, Stefan MC. Role of polythiophenes as electroactive materials. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/pola.28726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Crystal N. Niermann
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe University of Texas at DallasRichardson Texas75080
| | - Yixin Ren
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe University of Texas at DallasRichardson Texas75080
| | - Michael C. Biewer
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe University of Texas at DallasRichardson Texas75080
| | - Mihaela C. Stefan
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe University of Texas at DallasRichardson Texas75080
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Yamaguchi K, Murai T, Kutsumizu S, Miwa Y, Ebihara M, Guo J, Tokitoh N. Experimental and Theoretical Examination of the Radical Cations Obtained from the Chemical and Electrochemical Oxidation of 5-Aminothiazoles. ChemistryOpen 2017; 6:282-287. [PMID: 28413765 PMCID: PMC5390811 DOI: 10.1002/open.201700016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical or electrochemical one-electron oxidation of 5-N-arylaminothiazoles was found to afford stable radical cations. For chemical oxidation, 1 equivalent of [(4-BrC6H4)3N][SbCl6] (Magic Blue, MB) was added to CH2Cl2 solutions of the thiazoles, and the thus-obtained radicals showed light absorption in the near-infrared region. Electrochemical oxidation also led to bathochromic shifts in the absorption bands, and the obtained spectra were similar to those derived from the chemically oxidized species. These radicals afforded electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra that are consistent with the notion of stable nitrogen radicals (half-life≤385 h). The EPR spectrum of a thiazole containing 4-dimethylaminophenyl groups on the nitrogen atom at the 5-position changed significantly upon adding >3 equivalents of MB. Details of the electronic structures of the experimentally obtained radical cations were generated from theoretical calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirara Yamaguchi
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Faculty of EngineeringGifu University, YanagidoGifu501–1193Japan
| | - Toshiaki Murai
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Faculty of EngineeringGifu University, YanagidoGifu501–1193Japan
| | - Shoichi Kutsumizu
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Faculty of EngineeringGifu University, YanagidoGifu501–1193Japan
| | - Yohei Miwa
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Faculty of EngineeringGifu University, YanagidoGifu501–1193Japan
| | - Masahiro Ebihara
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Faculty of EngineeringGifu University, YanagidoGifu501–1193Japan
| | - Jing‐Dong Guo
- Institute for Chemical ResearchKyoto University, Gokasho UjiKyoto611-0011Japan
| | - Norihiro Tokitoh
- Institute for Chemical ResearchKyoto University, Gokasho UjiKyoto611-0011Japan
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Cao L, Fang G, Wang Y. Electroreduction of Viologen Phenyl Diazonium Salts as a Strategy To Control Viologen Coverage on Electrodes. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:980-987. [PMID: 28044444 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b04317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A majority of the reported electrografting of aryldiazonium salts result in the formation of covalently attached films with a limited surface coverage of below 5 nmol·cm-2. Herein, we report the preparation of higher-thickness redox-active viologen-grafted electrodes from the electroreduction of viologen phenyl diazonium salts, by either cyclic voltammetric (CV) sweeps or electrolysis using a fixed potential. Both of the methodologies were successfully applied for various conductive surfaces, including glassy carbon (GC), gold disc, indium tin oxide glass, mesoporous TiO2 electrodes, and 3D compacted carbon fibers. A robust maximal viologen coverage, Γviologen = 9.5 nmol·cm-2, was achieved on a GC electrode by CV electroreduction. Electroreduction held at a fixed potential at Eappl. = -0.3 V can fabricate viologen-grafted electrodes with Γviologen in the range of 0-37 nmol·cm-2 in a controllable way, by simply adjusting the electrodeposition time tappl.. Time-dependent Γviologen were found to be 10 nmol·cm-2@2 min, 20 nmol·cm-2@4.2 min, and 30 nmol·cm-2@7 min. Furthermore, a TiO2 electrode coupled with Γviologen of 140 nmol·cm-2 exhibited electrochromic performance, with the color changing from pale yellow to blue and red brown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangcheng Cao
- Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technologies, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Fangzheng Avenue 266, Chongqing 400714, China
| | - Gan Fang
- Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technologies, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Fangzheng Avenue 266, Chongqing 400714, China
| | - Yuechuan Wang
- College of Polymer Science & Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, Sichuan University , South Section of 1st Ring Road 24, Chengdu 610065, China
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Majumdar M, Saha S, Dutta I, Sinha A, Bera JK. Inter-ligand electronic coupling mediated through a dimetal bridge: dependence on metal ions and ancillary ligands. Dalton Trans 2017; 46:5660-5669. [DOI: 10.1039/c6dt04679g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The metal–metal bond orbitals and the ancillary ligands influence inter-ligand charge transfer through the dimetal bridge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moumita Majumdar
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
- Kanpur 208016
- India
| | - Sayantani Saha
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
- Kanpur 208016
- India
| | - Indranil Dutta
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
- Kanpur 208016
- India
| | - Arup Sinha
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
- Kanpur 208016
- India
| | - Jitendra K. Bera
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
- Kanpur 208016
- India
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Lu HC, Kao SY, Yu HF, Chang TH, Kung CW, Ho KC. Achieving Low-Energy Driven Viologens-Based Electrochromic Devices Utilizing Polymeric Ionic Liquids. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:30351-30361. [PMID: 27726326 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b10152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Herein, three kinds of viologens-based electrochromic devices (ECDs) (heptyl viologen (HV(BF4)2), octyl viologen (OV(BF4)2), and nonyl viologen (NV(BF4)2)) were fabricated utilizing ferrocene (Fc) as a redox mediator. Among them, the NV(BF4)2-based ECD exhibits the highest coloration efficiency (36.2 cm2/C) owing to the lowest driving energy. Besides, switching between 0 and 1.2 V, the NV(BF4)2-based ECD shows a desirable initial transmittance change (ΔT = 56.7% at 605 nm), and long-term stability (ΔT = 45.4% after 4000 cycles). Furthermore, a UV-cured polymer electrolyte containing polymeric ionic liquid (PIL, 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide) and ethoxylated trimethylolpropane triacrylate (ETPTA) was introduced to the NV(BF4)2-based ECD. By controlling the weight percentage of the PIL, different curing degrees of the polymer electrolytes were obtained and led to an improved stability of the NV(BF4)2-based ECD because of the immobilization of NV(BF4)2. This observation was explained by calculating the apparent diffusivity (Dapp) of the redox species in the NV(BF4)2-based ECD under various curing degrees. In addition, increasing the amount of PIL leads to a lower driven energy needed for the NV(BF4)2-based ECD, following the same trend as the value of Dapp. Among all NV(BF4)2-based ECDs, 20 wt % of PIL addition (20-PIL ECD) exhibits large transmittance change (ΔT = 55.2% at 605 nm), short switching times (2.13 s in coloring and 2.10 s in bleaching), high coloration efficiency (60.4 and 273.5 cm2/C at 605 nm, after excluding the current density at the steady state), and exceptional cycling stability (ΔT = 53.8% after 10,000 cycles, or retained 97.5% of its initial ΔT).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsin-Che Lu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Yuan Kao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Fu Yu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Hsiang Chang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Wei Kung
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Chuan Ho
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
- Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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Kao SY, Lu HC, Kung CW, Chen HW, Chang TH, Ho KC. Thermally Cured Dual Functional Viologen-Based All-in-One Electrochromic Devices with Panchromatic Modulation. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:4175-4184. [PMID: 26807824 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b11947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Vinyl benzyl viologen (VBV) was synthesized and utilized to obtain all-in-one thermally cured electrochromic devices (ECDs). The vinyl moiety of VBV monomer could react with methyl methacrylate (MMA) to yield bulky VBV/poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) chains and even cross-linked network without the assistance of additional cross-linker. Both the bulky VBV/PMMA chains and the resulting polymer network can hinder the aggregation of the viologens and reduce the possibility of dimerization, rendering enhanced cycling stability. Large transmittance changes (ΔT) over 60% at both 570 and 615 nm were achieved when the VBV-based ECD was switched from 0 V to a low potential bias of 0.5 V. Ultimately, the dual functional of VBV molecules, serving simultaneously as a promising electrochromic material and a cross-linker, is fully utilized in the proposed electrochromic system, making its fabrication process much easier. Negligible decays in ΔT at both wavelengths were observed for the cured ECD after being subjected to 1000 repetitive cycles, while 17.1% and 22.0% decays were noticed at 570 and 615 nm, respectively, for the noncured ECD. In addition, the low voltage-driven feature of the VBV-based ECD enables it to be incorporated with phenyl viologen (PV), further expanding the absorption range of the ECD. Panchromatic characteristic of the proposed PV/VBV-based ECD was demonstrated while exhibiting ΔT over 60% at both wavelengths. Only 5.3% and 6.9% decays, corresponding at 570 and 615 nm, respectively, were observed in the PV/VBV-based ECD after 10 000 continuous cycles at bleaching/coloring voltages of 0/0.5 V with an interval of 10 s for both bleaching and coloring processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Yuan Kao
- Department of Chemical Engineering and ‡Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Che Lu
- Department of Chemical Engineering and ‡Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Wei Kung
- Department of Chemical Engineering and ‡Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Wei Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering and ‡Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Hsiang Chang
- Department of Chemical Engineering and ‡Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Chuan Ho
- Department of Chemical Engineering and ‡Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University , No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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Gadgil B, Damlin P, Dmitrieva E, Ääritalo T, Kvarnström C. Exploring amide linkage in a polyviologen derivative towards simultaneous voltammetric determination of Pb(II), Cu(II) and Hg(II) ions. Electrochim Acta 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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