Remarkable influence of 'phane effect' on the excited-state properties of cofacially oriented coumarins

Design, Synthesis, and Photophysical Properties of 5-Aminobiphenyl Substituted [1,2,4]Triazolo[4,3-c]- and [1,2,4]Triazolo[1,5-c]quinazolines

Two series of novel [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-c]- and [1,2,4]triazolo[1,5-c]quinazoline fluorophores with 4'-amino[1,1']-biphenyl residue at position 5 have been prepared via Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling Suzuki-Miyaura reactions. The treatment of 2-(4-bromophenyl)-4-hydrazinoquinazoline with orthoesters in solvent-free conditions or in absolute ethanol leads to the formation of [4,3-c]-annulated triazoloquinazolines, whereas [1,5-c] isomers are formed in acidic media as a result of Dimroth rearrangement. A 1D-NMR and 2D-NMR spectroscopy, as well as a single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis, unambiguously confirmed the annelation type and determined the molecular structure of p-bromophenyl intermediates and target products. Photophysical properties of the target compounds were investigated in two solvents and in the solid state and compared with those of related 3-aryl-substituted [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-c]quinazolines. The exclusion of the aryl fragment from the triazole ring has been revealed to improve fluorescence quantum yield in solution. Most of the synthesized structures show moderate to high quantum yields in solution. Additionally, the effect of solvent polarity on the absorption and emission spectra of fluorophores has been studied, and considerable fluorosolvatochromism has been stated. Moreover, electrochemical investigation and DFT calculations have been performed; their results are consistent with the experimental observation.

Fluorescence of p-hydroxyazobenzocrowns - Tautomeric equilibrium effect

The spectroscopic properties of a series of para-hydroxyazobenzocrowns, including three novel compounds, were investigated using UV-Vis absorption and emission spectroscopy. This study presents, for the first time, determined quantum yield (QY) values for macrocycles of this category, ranging between 0.122 and 0.195. The highest values were obtained for crowns bearing two phenyl substituents in benzene rings. The impact of aromatic ring substituents and macroring size on the spectral characterization (1H NMR and FTIR) of p-hydroxyazobenzocrowns was examined in consideration of the azophenol ⇄ quinone-hydrazone tautomeric equilibrium. Dipole moments of p-hydroxyazobenzocrowns in the ground and excited states have been determined. The alignment between experimental findings and theoretical studies was established.

Conformation of the Ester Group Governs the Photophysics of Highly Polarized Benzo[g]coumarins

Photosensitizers that display "unusual" emission from upper electronically excited states offer possibilities for initiating higher-energy processes than what the governing Kasha's rule postulates. Achieving conditions for dual fluorescence from multiple states of the same species requires molecular design and conditions that favorably tune the excited-state dynamics. Herein, we switch the position of the electron-donating NMe₂ group around the core of benzo[g]coumarins (BgCoum) and tune the electronic coupling and the charge-transfer character of the fluorescent excited states. For solvents with intermediate polarity, three of the four regioisomers exhibit fluorescence from two different excited states with bands that are well separated in the visible and the near-infrared spectral regions. Computational analysis, employing ab initio methods, reveals that the orientation of an ester on the pyrone ring produces two conformers responsible for the observed dual fluorescence. Studies with solid solvating media, which restricts the conformational degrees of freedom, concur with the computational findings. These results demonstrate how "seemingly inconsequential" auxiliary substituents, such as the esters on the pyrone coumarin rings, can have profound effects leading to "anti-Kasha" photophysical behavior important for molecular photonics, materials engineering, and solar-energy science.

3-Aryl-5-aminobiphenyl Substituted [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-c]quinazolines: Synthesis and Photophysical Properties

Amino-[1,1']-biphenyl-containing 3-aryl-[1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-c]quinazoline derivatives with fluorescent properties have been designed and synthesized. The type of annelation of the triazole ring to the pyrimidine one has been unambiguously confirmed by means of an X-ray diffraction (XRD) method; the molecules are non-planar, and the aryl substituents form the pincer-like conformation. The UV/Vis and photoluminescent properties of target compounds were investigated in two solvents of different polarities and in a solid state. The samples emit a broad range of wavelengths and display fluorescent quantum yields of up to 94% in toluene solutions. 5-(4'-Diphenylamino-[1,1']-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-[1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-c]quinazoline exhibits the strongest emission in toluene and a solid state. Additionally, the solvatochromic properties were studied for the substituted [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-c]quinazolines. Moreover, the changes in absorption and emission spectra have been demonstrated upon the addition of water to MeCN solutions, which confirms aggregate formation, and some samples were found to exhibit aggregation-induced emission enhancement. Further, the ability of triazoloquinazolines to detect trifluoroacetic acid has been analyzed; the presence of TFA induces changes in both absorption and emission spectra, and acidochromic behavvior was observed for some triazoloquinazoline compounds. Finally, electronic-structure calculations with the use of quantum-chemistry methods were performed for synthesized compounds.

Beyond the Bioorthogonal Inverse-Electron-Demand Diels–Alder Reactions of Tetrazines: 2-Pyrone-Functionalized Fluorogenic Probes

The applicability of pyrones as a bioorthogonal platform was explored in inverse-electron-demand Diels–Alder (IEDDA) reactions with a strained cyclooctyne. Studies showed that the pyrones are indeed suitable for IEDDA reactions under physiological conditions. Furthermore, the stable pyrone moiety could be utilized to construct easily accessible fluorogenic probes. Mutual orthogonality of the IEDDA reaction of 2-pyrones with SPAAC reactions of azides was also explored.

Solution and Solid-State Photophysical Properties of Positional Isomeric Acrylonitrile Derivatives with Core Pyridine and Phenyl Moieties: Experimental and DFT Studies

The compounds I (Z)-2-(phenyl)-3-(2,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)acrylonitrile with one side (2,4,5-MeO-), one symmetrical (2Z,2'Z)-2,2'-(1,4-phenylene)bis(3-(2,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)acrylonitrile), II (both sides with (2,4,5-MeO-), and three positional isomers with pyridine (Z)-2-(pyridin-2- 3, or 4-yl)-3-(2,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)acrylonitrile, III-V were synthetized and characterized by UV-Vis, fluorescence, IR, H1-NMR, and EI mass spectrometry as well as single crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD). The optical properties were strongly influenced by the solvent (hyperchromic and hypochromic shift), which were compared with the solid state. According to the solvatochromism theory, the excited-state (μe) and ground-state (μg) dipole moments were calculated based on the variation of Stokes shift with the solvent's relative permittivity, refractive index, and polarity parameters. SCXRD analyses revealed that the compounds I and II crystallized in the monoclinic system with the space group, P21/n and P21/c, respectively, and with Z = 4 and 2. III, IV, and V crystallized in space groups: orthorhombic, Pbca; triclinic, P-1; and monoclinic, P21 with Z = 1, 2, and 2, respectively. The intermolecular interactions for compounds I-V were investigated using the CCDC Mercury software and their energies were quantified using PIXEL. The density of states (DOS), molecular electrostatic potential surfaces (MEPS), and natural bond orbitals (NBO) of the compounds were determined to evaluate the photophysical properties.

Temperature-Dependent Emission and Turn-Off Fluorescence Sensing of Hazardous "Quat" Herbicides in Water by a Zn-MOF Based on a Semi-Rigid Dibenzochrysene Tetraacetic Acid Linker

A zinc metal-organic framework, i.e., Zn-MOF (Zn-DBC), with ca. 27% solvent-accessible void volume was synthesized from a rationally designed tetraacid based on sterically insulated dibenzo[g,p]chrysene core; the latter inherently features concave shapes. Due to rigidification of the fluorophore in the MOF, Zn-DBC exhibits a respectable fluorescence quantum yield of ca. 30% in the solid state. The fluorescent and water-stable Zn-DBC MOF was found to display intriguing temperature-dependent emission behavior with an activation barrier of 1.06 kcal/mol for radiationless deactivation from the singlet-excited state. It is shown that the Zn-MOF can be employed as an efficient sensory material for detection of hazardous "quat" dicationic herbicides in water by diffusion-limited "turn-off" fluorescence. Due to confinement of the cationic guest analytes within the pores of the MOF, the fluorescence quenching via excited-state charge transfer mechanism is shown to depend on the molecular size of the analyte in addition to the redox potentials. Remarkably, Zn-DBC permits sensing of DQ, a well-known toxic "quat" herbicide, with a detection limit as low as 2.8 ppm in water. The unique structural attributes of the Zn-MOF for highly efficient fluorescence sensing of toxic herbicides in water are thus exemplified for the first time.

The Interplay between Solvation and Stacking of Aromatic Rings Governs Bright and Dark Sites of Benzo[g]coumarins

Coumarins are classic, strongly polarized fluorophores with multiple applications, and significant efforts have been put into modifying their emission characteristics and elucidating their photophysics. Expecting that π-expansion of these donor-acceptor chromophores could modify their ground- and excited-state characteristics, the authors performed combined, detailed photophysical and computational studies of linearly π-expanded coumarins, that is, 8-dialkylamino-3-carboxyalkyl-benzo[g]coumarins. The investigation led to the conclusion that emission is only possible thanks to the stabilizing effect of the solvent and that breaking of the lactone ring leads to the conical intersection with the ground state and induces the radiationless decay of the electronic excitation. Aiming at the fine-tuning the excited state properties through the construction of covalently linked dye assemblies, the authors designed and synthesized a new bis(benzo[g]coumarin), built from two similar moieties that exhibit different degrees of polarization due to the electron donor at position 8: one possesses a dialkylamino, and the other a weaker amide donor. Comprehensive studies have shown that the observed weak fluorescence of the system is the result of the interplay between the solvation-induced separation of the benzo[g]coumarin moieties, which stabilizes the emitting locally excited singlet state and the π-stacking interactions, favoring their sandwiched orientation and leading to the non-emissive charge-transfer state.

Coumarin-Annelated Regioisomeric Heptahelicenes: Influence of Helicity on Excited-State Properties and Chiroptical Properties

Two regioisomeric pairs of heptahelical mono- and biscoumarins that are differentiated by "inward" and "outward" disposition of the pyran-2-one moiety have been synthesized and investigated to understand the influence of helicity on excited-state and chiroptical properties. A slight variation in the helicities is found to manifest in contrasting excited-state properties of coumarin-annelated heptahelicenes; in addition to the intramolecular charge transfer, structural relaxation in the excited state is shown from theoretical calculations to cause decrease in the fluorescence quantum yield for a system with higher helicity. The optically pure enantiomers of heptahelical coumarins exhibit helicity-dependent chiroptical properties, namely, specific rotations, molar ellipticities, Cotton effects, and anisotropic dissymmetry factors. Theoretical calculations point to factors that are not readily explicable.

Building Molecular Complexity from Quinizarin: Conjoined Coumarins and Coronene Analogs

The double Knoevenagel condensation of 1,4-dibenzoyloxyanthraquinone with methyl esters of arylacetic acids affords a series of compounds based upon a previously unknown 1,8-dioxa-benzo[e]pyrene-2,7-dione heterocyclic core. The aryl groups incorporated in the 3- and 6-positions can be oxidatively coupled to the π-expanded backbone to produce a further new heterocyclic core: 1,10-dioxa-dibenzo[dj]coronene-2,9-dione. The intriguing optical properties of these π-expanded coumarin derivatives are discussed and rationalized through quantum chemical calculations. The broad absorption bands of 1,8-dioxa-benzo[e]pyrene-2,7-dione-based dyes are attributed to both HOMO-1→LUMO and HOMO→LUMO transitions, which have a similar energy. Weakly coupled electron-donating aryl substituents result in a moderate bathochromic shift of both the absorption and emission by 30-60 nm in toluene. The emissive properties of these compounds are in part determined by the oscillator strength of the main transition, lifetimes of the excited state, and by the energy match of the excited state with a triplet state of a similar energy. The 1,10-dioxa-dibenzo[dj]coronene-2,9-dione displays a much smaller Stokes shift, yet a markedly increased fluorescence quantum yield of 90 % owing to the increased rigidity compared with the 1,8-dioxa-benzo[e]pyrene-2,7-dione core.

The synthesis and photophysical properties of tris-coumarins

A structurally unique cyclic tris-coumarin possessing three identical coumarin units bridged by amide linkers as well as two linear analogs has been synthesized. There is a remarkable agreement between crystallographic data, 1H NMR and results of calculations for the cyclic tris-coumarin, showing in all cases a non-symmetric arrangement of identical coumarin moieties. Weak polarization of the coumarin subunits, resulting from the presence of only CONH- groups as electron-donors, results in a hypsochromic shift of both absorption and emission in this dye. We have proven that in non-cyclic, head-to-tail linked tris-coumarins, the photophysics is controlled not only by the substituents but also by the conformation of the molecule, which in turn depends on the nature of the linker's interactions. These can be controlled by the presence/absence of an amide-type hydrogen atom responsible for the formation of intramolecular hydrogen bonds. The presence of a hydrogen bond favors a stretched trans conformation of the dye, while in its absence, folding of the molecule occurs leading to a more compact conformation. Although, the increased number of covalently linked coumarin units does not drastically change the preferred conformation, the fluorescence quantum yields of tris-coumarins are significantly lower than for analogous bis-coumarins composed of the same units.

Anionic merocyanine dyes based on thiazol-2-hydrazides: reverse solvatochromism, preferential solvation and multiparametric approaches to spectral shifts

Reverse solvatochromism, preferential solvation and multiparametric approaches to spectral shifts of (4-nitro/cyanophenyl)-substituted thiazol-2-hydrazide colored merocyanine dyes are presented.

Effect of conformational flexibility on photophysics of bis-coumarins

The fluorescence of bis-coumarins linked via CONH and COO functionalities is strongly dependant on solvent polarity.

Helicity-Dependent Regiodifferentiation in the Excited-State Quenching and Chiroptical Properties of Inward/Outward Helical Coumarins

Influence of helicity on the excited-state as well as chiroptical properties of two sets of regiohelical coumarins that are differentiated by "inward" and "outward" disposition of the pyran-2-one ring has been investigated. A subtle difference in the helicities manifests in divergent excited-state properties and significant differences in the dipole moments. The latter permit heretofore unprecedented regiodifferentiation in the O-H⋅⋅⋅O hydrogen-bond assisted electron-transfer quenching by phenols. Furthermore, the enantiopure hexahelical coumarins exhibit strong Cotton effects and lend themselves to a very high differentiation in the specific rotations and anisotropic dissymmetry factors. The specific rotation observed for 6-in turns out being the highest of the values reported for all hexahelicenes reported so far.