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Brunard E, Boquet V, Saget T, Sosa Carrizo ED, Sircoglou M, Dauban P. Catalyst-Controlled Intermolecular Homobenzylic C(sp 3)-H Amination for the Synthesis of β-Arylethylamines. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:5843-5854. [PMID: 38387076 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c10964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
The combination of a tailored sulfamate with a C4-symmetrical rhodium(II) tetracarboxylate allows to uncover a selective intermolecular amination of unactivated homobenzylic C(sp3)-H bonds. The reaction has a broad scope (>30 examples) and proceeds with a high level of regioselectivity with homobenzylic/benzylic ratio of up to 35:1, thereby providing a direct access to β-arylethylamines that are of utmost interest in medicinal chemistry. Computational investigations evidenced a concerted mechanism, involving an asynchronous transition state. Based on a combined activation strain model and energy decomposition analysis, the regioselectivity of the reaction was found to rely mainly on the degree of orbital interaction between the [Rh2]-nitrene and the C-H bond. The latter is facilitated at the homobenzylic position due to the establishment of specific noncovalent interactions within the catalytic pocket.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwan Brunard
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Vincent Boquet
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Tanguy Saget
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - E Daiann Sosa Carrizo
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Moléculaire et des Matériaux d'Orsay, 91400 Orsay, France
| | - Marie Sircoglou
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Moléculaire et des Matériaux d'Orsay, 91400 Orsay, France
| | - Philippe Dauban
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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2
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Computational Exploration of Dirhodium Complex-Catalyzed Selective Intermolecular Amination of Tertiary vs. Benzylic C-H Bonds. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041928. [PMID: 36838915 PMCID: PMC9959850 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanism and origins of site-selectivity of Rh2(S-tfpttl)4-catalyzed C(sp3)-H bond aminations were studied using density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The synergistic combination of the dirhodium complex Rh2(S-tfpttl)4 with tert-butylphenol sulfamate TBPhsNH2 composes a pocket that can access both tertiary and benzylic C-H bonds. The nonactivated tertiary C-H bond was selectively aminated in the presence of an electronically activated benzylic C-H bond. Both singlet and triplet energy surfaces were investigated in this study. The computational results suggest that the triplet stepwise pathway is more favorable than the singlet concerted pathway. In the hydrogen atom abstraction by Rh-nitrene species, which is the rate- and site-selectivity-determining step, there is an attractive π-π stacking interaction between the phenyl group of the substrate and the phthalimido group of the ligand in the tertiary C-H activation transition structure. By contrast, such attractive interaction is absent in the benzylic C-H amination transition structure. Therefore, the DFT computational results clearly demonstrate how the synergistic combination of the dirhodium complex with sulfamate overrides the intrinsic preference for benzylic C-H amination to achieve the amination of the nonactivated tertiary C-H bond.
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3
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Theoretical studies on Mn-catalyzed intermolecular allylic C-H aminations of internal olefins: mechanism, chemo- and regioselectivity. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2022.112278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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4
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Wang J, Zheng K, Xiao R, Qian L, Lin Z. A comparative study of Rh 2-catalyzed intermolecular nitrene transfer reactions: mechanism and chemoselectivity. Catal Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2cy00155a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The intermolecular catalytic mechanisms using Rh2(esp)2 and Rh2(OAc)4 are analogous and their large difference in aziridination-to-amination chemoselectivity stems from the steric effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juping Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Kangcheng Zheng
- School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Rongxing Xiao
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
| | - Li Qian
- School of Pharmacy, Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities, 533000, P. R. China
| | - Zijie Lin
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China
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5
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Wang J, Lin Z, Zheng K, Xiao R, Qian L. Mechanistic and selectivity investigations into Fe-catalyzed 2, 3-disubstituted azaindole formation from β,β-disubstituted tetrazole. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2021.112032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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6
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Wang J, Xiao R, Zheng K, Qian L. Theoretical studies on iron-catalyzed azaindoline formation: mechanism and site-selectivity. Dalton Trans 2021; 50:11370-11375. [PMID: 34382981 DOI: 10.1039/d1dt02373j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism and site-selectivity for Fe-catalyzed azaindoline formation from 1,2,3,4-tetrazole were examined computationally. The H-atom abstraction/radical rebound stepwise mechanism is proposed. The aliphatic H-atom abstraction (HAA) vs. electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) steps are responsible for the sp3vs. sp2 C-H amination site-selectivity and a larger steric congestion disfavors sp2 EAS, thus resulting in Fe-catalyzed site-selectivity toward sp3 C-H amination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juping Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, P. R. China.
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7
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Pan D, Luo G, Yu Y, Yang J, Luo Y. Computational insights into Ir(iii)-catalyzed allylic C-H amination of terminal alkenes: mechanism, regioselectivity, and catalytic activity. RSC Adv 2021; 11:19113-19120. [PMID: 35478613 PMCID: PMC9033584 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra03842g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Computational studies on Ir(iii)-catalyzed intermolecular branch-selective allylic C–H amination of terminal olefins with methyl dioxazolone have been carried out to investigate the mechanism, including the origins of regioselectivity and catalytic activity difference. The result suggests that the reaction proceeds through generation of active species, alkene coordination, allylic C–H activation, decarboxylation, migratory insertion, and protodemetalation. The presence of AgNTf2 could thermodynamically promote the formation of catalytically active species [Cp*Ir(OAc)]+. Both the weaker Ir–C(internal) bond and the closer interatomic distance of N⋯C(internal) in the key allyl-Ir(v)-nitrenoid intermediate make the migratory insertion into Ir–C(internal) bond easier than into the Ir–C(terminal) bond, leading to branch-selective allylic C–H amidation. The high energy barrier for allylic C–H activation in the Co system could account for the observed sluggishness, which is mainly ascribed to the weaker coordination capacity of alkenes to the triplet Cp*Co(OAc)+ and the deficient metal⋯H interaction to assist hydrogen transfer. DFT studies on Ir(iii)-catalyzed branch-selective allylic C–H amination of terminal olefins with methyl dioxazolone have been carried out to investigate the mechanism, including the origins of regioselectivity and catalytic activity difference.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Deng Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, School of Chemical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology Dalian 116024 China
| | - Gen Luo
- Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University Hefei 230601 China
| | - Yang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, School of Chemical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology Dalian 116024 China
| | - Jimin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, School of Chemical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology Dalian 116024 China
| | - Yi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, School of Chemical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology Dalian 116024 China .,PetroChina Petrochemical Research Institute Beijing 102206 China
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8
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Wang J, Xiao R, Zheng K, Qian L. Mechanistic and chemoselective insights on sp 3- and sp 2-C–H bond aminations: Fe- vs. Ir-based catalysis. Catal Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1cy00682g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms of Fe- and Ir-catalyzed sp3- and sp2-C–H bond aminations of a styryl substrate have been studied using the BPW91 method, with an emphasis on the origin of sp3-to-sp2-C–H amination chemoselectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juping Wang
- School of Pharmacy
- Guangdong Pharmaceutical University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Rongxing Xiao
- School of Pharmacy
- Guangdong Pharmaceutical University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Kangcheng Zheng
- School of Chemistry
- Sun Yat-sen University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Li Qian
- School of Pharmacy
- Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities
- P. R. China
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9
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Wang J, Gao H, Yang L, Gao YQ. Role of Engineered Iron-haem Enzyme in Reactivity and Stereoselectivity of Intermolecular Benzylic C–H Bond Amination. ACS Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.0c00248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juping Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Hui Gao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
| | - Lijiang Yang
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Biomedical Pioneering Innovation Center, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yi Qin Gao
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), Beijing 100871, China
- Biomedical Pioneering Innovation Center, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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Mechanism and Chemoselectivity of Mn-Catalyzed Intramolecular Nitrene Transfer Reaction: C–H Amination vs. C=C Aziridination. Catalysts 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/catal10030292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The reactivity, mechanism and chemoselectivity of the Mn-catalyzed intramolecular C–H amination versus C=C aziridination of allylic substrate cis-4-hexenylsulfamate are investigated by BP86 density functional theory computations. Emphasis is placed on the origins of high reactivity and high chemoselectivity of Mn catalysis. The N p orbital character of frontier orbitals, a strong electron-withdrawing porphyrazine ligand and a poor π backbonding of high-valent MnIII metal to N atom lead to high electrophilic reactivity of Mn-nitrene. The calculated energy barrier of C–H amination is 9.9 kcal/mol lower than that of C=C aziridination, which indicates that Mn-based catalysis has an excellent level of chemoselectivity towards C–H amination, well consistent with the experimental the product ratio of amintion-to-aziridination I:A (i.e., (Insertion):(Aziridination)) >20:1. This extraordinary chemoselectivity towards C–H amination originates from the structural features of porphyrazine: a rigid ligand with the big π-conjugated bond. Electron-donating substituents can further increase Mn-catalyzed C–H amination reactivity. The controlling factors found in this work may be considered as design elements for an economical and environmentally friendly C–H amination system with high reactivity and high chemoselectivity.
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11
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Das A, Chen YS, Reibenspies JH, Powers DC. Characterization of a Reactive Rh2 Nitrenoid by Crystalline Matrix Isolation. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:16232-16236. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b09064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anuvab Das
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Yu-Sheng Chen
- ChemMatCARS, University of Chicago c/o APS/ANL, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Joseph H. Reibenspies
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - David C. Powers
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
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12
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Ahn S, Hong M, Sundararajan M, Ess DH, Baik MH. Design and Optimization of Catalysts Based on Mechanistic Insights Derived from Quantum Chemical Reaction Modeling. Chem Rev 2019; 119:6509-6560. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Seihwan Ahn
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
- Center for Catalytic Hydrocarbon Functionalizations, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Mannkyu Hong
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
- Center for Catalytic Hydrocarbon Functionalizations, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Mahesh Sundararajan
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
- Center for Catalytic Hydrocarbon Functionalizations, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Daniel H. Ess
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602, United States
| | - Mu-Hyun Baik
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
- Center for Catalytic Hydrocarbon Functionalizations, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
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13
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Pan D, Wei Y, Shi M. Mechanistic studies for dirhodium-catalyzed chemoselective oxidative amination of alkynyl-tethered sulfamates. Org Chem Front 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9qo00050j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Theoretical studies revealed the detailed mechanisms for dirhodium-datalyzed chemoselective oxidative amination of alkynyl-tethered sulfamates and account for the origin of product selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 200032
| | - Yin Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 200032
| | - Min Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 200032
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14
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Yu Y, Luo G, Yang J, Luo Y. Cobalt-catalysed unactivated C(sp 3)–H amination: two-state reactivity and multi-reference electronic character. Catal Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cy00239a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A remarkable two-state reactivity scenario and an unusual multi-reference character have been computationally found in Co-catalysed C(sp3)–H amination. In addition, the investigation on the additive, aminating reagent, metal center, and auxiliary ligand provides implications for development of new catalytic C–H functionalization systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals
- School of Chemical Engineering
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian 116024
- China
| | - Gen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals
- School of Chemical Engineering
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian 116024
- China
| | - Jimin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals
- School of Chemical Engineering
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian 116024
- China
| | - Yi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals
- School of Chemical Engineering
- Dalian University of Technology
- Dalian 116024
- China
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15
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Rey-Rodriguez R, Jestin G, Gandon V, Grelier G, Retailleau P, Darses B, Dauban P, Gillaizeau I. Intermolecular Rhodium(II)-Catalyzed Allylic C(sp
3
)-H Amination of Cyclic Enamides. Adv Synth Catal 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201701188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Romain Rey-Rodriguez
- Institute of Organic and Analytical Chemistry, ICOA UMR 7311 CNRS; Université d'Orléans; rue de Chartres 45100 Orléans France
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Sud; Université Paris-Saclay; avenue de la terrasse 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette France
| | - Grégory Jestin
- Institute of Organic and Analytical Chemistry, ICOA UMR 7311 CNRS; Université d'Orléans; rue de Chartres 45100 Orléans France
| | - Vincent Gandon
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Sud; Université Paris-Saclay; avenue de la terrasse 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette France
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire et des Matériaux d'Orsay, CNRS UMR 8182; Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay; 91405 Orsay France
| | - Gwendal Grelier
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Sud; Université Paris-Saclay; avenue de la terrasse 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette France
| | - Pascal Retailleau
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Sud; Université Paris-Saclay; avenue de la terrasse 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette France
| | - Benjamin Darses
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Sud; Université Paris-Saclay; avenue de la terrasse 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette France
| | - Philippe Dauban
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Sud; Université Paris-Saclay; avenue de la terrasse 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette France
| | - Isabelle Gillaizeau
- Institute of Organic and Analytical Chemistry, ICOA UMR 7311 CNRS; Université d'Orléans; rue de Chartres 45100 Orléans France
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Gao D, Bao X. Mechanistic insights into the different chemoselectivities of Rh2(ii)-catalyzed ring expansion of cyclobutanol-substituted aryl azides and C–H bond amination of cyclopentanol-substituted aryl azides: a DFT study. Org Chem Front 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8qo00113h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of Rh2(ii)-catalyzed ring expansion of ortho-cyclobutanol-substituted aryl azides to access N-heterocycles was investigated by DFT calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dafang Gao
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Soochow University
- Suzhou
- China
| | - Xiaoguang Bao
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Soochow University
- Suzhou
- China
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17
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Wang J, Zheng K, Lin B, Weng Y. A comparative study of inter- and intramolecular C–H aminations: mechanism and site selectivity. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra05032a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The similarities and differences of inter- and intramolecular aminations are discussed, with an emphasis on correlation between pathway and site-selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juping Wang
- School of Pharmacy
- Guangdong Pharmaceutical University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Kangcheng Zheng
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Sun Yat-sen University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Binbin Lin
- School of Pharmacy
- Guangdong Pharmaceutical University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Yuping Weng
- School of Pharmacy
- Guangdong Pharmaceutical University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
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