New RuII pincer complexes: synthesis, characterization and biological evaluation for photodynamic therapy

Fine-Tuning of the Optical and Electrochemical Properties of Ruthenium(II) Complexes with 2-Arylbenzimidazoles and 4,4'-Dimethoxycarbonyl-2,2'-bipyridine

A series of cyclometalated complexes of ruthenium (II) with four different substituents in the aryl fragment of benzimidazole was synthesized in order to study the effect of substituent donation on the electronic structure of the substances. The resulting complexes were studied using X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, MALDI mass spectrometry, electron absorption spectroscopy, luminescence spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry as well as DFT/TDDFT was also used to interpret the results. All the complexes have intense absorption in the range of up to 700 nm, the triplet nature of the excited state was confirmed by measurement of luminescence decay. With an increase in substituent donation, a red shift of the absorption and emission bands occurs, and the lifetime of the excited state and the redox potential of the complex decrease. The combination of these properties shows that the complexes are excellent dyes and can be used as photosensitizers.

Ruthenium Complexes with Protic Ligands: Influence of the Position of OH Groups and π Expansion on Luminescence and Photocytotoxicity

Protic ruthenium complexes using the dihydroxybipyridine (dhbp) ligand combined with a spectator ligand (N,N = bpy, phen, dop, Bphen) have been studied for their potential activity vs. cancer cells and their photophysical luminescent properties. These complexes vary in the extent of π expansion and the use of proximal (6,6'-dhbp) or distal (4,4'-dhbp) hydroxy groups. Eight complexes are studied herein as the acidic (OH bearing) form, [(N,N)₂Ru(n,n'-dhbp)]Cl₂, or as the doubly deprotonated (O^- bearing) form. Thus, the presence of these two protonation states gives 16 complexes that have been isolated and studied. Complex 7_A, [(dop)₂Ru(4,4'-dhbp)]Cl₂, has been recently synthesized and characterized spectroscopically and by X-ray crystallography. The deprotonated forms of three complexes are also reported herein for the first time. The other complexes studied have been synthesized previously. Three complexes are light-activated and exhibit photocytotoxicity. The log(D_o/w) values of the complexes are used herein to correlate photocytotoxicity with improved cellular uptake. For Ru complexes 1-4 bearing the 6,6'-dhbp ligand, photoluminescence studies (all in deaerated acetonitrile) have revealed that steric strain leads to photodissociation which tends to reduce photoluminescent lifetimes and quantum yields in both protonation states. For Ru complexes 5-8 bearing the 4,4'-dhbp ligand, the deprotonated Ru complexes (5_B-8_B) have low photoluminescent lifetimes and quantum yields due to quenching that is proposed to involve the ³LLCT excited state and charge transfer from the [O₂-bpy]^2- ligand to the N,N spectator ligand. The protonated OH bearing 4,4'-dhbp Ru complexes (5_A-8_A) have long luminescence lifetimes which increase with increasing π expansion on the N,N spectator ligand. The Bphen complex, 8_A, has the longest lifetime of the series at 3.45 μs and a photoluminescence quantum yield of 18.7%. This Ru complex also exhibits the best photocytotoxicity of the series. A long luminescence lifetime is correlated with greater singlet oxygen quantum yields because the triplet excited state is presumably long-lived enough to interact with ³O₂ to yield ¹O₂.

Ruthenium pincer complexes for light activated toxicity: Lipophilic groups enhance toxicity

Nine ruthenium CNC pincer complexes (1-9) were tested for anticancer activity in cell culture under both dark and light conditions. These complexes included varied CNC pincer ligands including OH, OMe, or Me substituents on the pyridyl ring and wingtip N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) groups which varied as methyl (Me), phenyl (Ph), mesityl (Mes), and 2,6-diisopropylphenyl (Dipp). The supporting ligands included acetonitrile, Cl, and 2,2'-bipyridine (bpy) donors. The synthesis of complexes 8 and 9 is described herein and are fully characterized by spectroscopic (1H NMR, IR, UV-Vis, MS) and analytical techniques. Single crystal X-ray diffraction results are reported herein for 8 and 9. The other complexes (1-7) are reported elsewhere. The four most lipophilic ruthenium complexes (6, 7, 8, and 9) showed the best activity vs. MCF7 cancer cells with complexes 6 and 9 showing cytotoxicity and complex 7 and 8 showing light activated photocytotoxicity. The distribution of these compounds between octanol and water is reported as log(Do/w) values, and increasing log(Do/w) values correlate roughly with improved activity vs. cancer cells. Overall, lipophilic wingtip groups (e.g. Ph, Mes, Dipp) on the NHC ring and a lower cationic charge (1+ vs. 2+) appears to be beneficial for improved anticancer activity.

Light-responsive and Protic Ruthenium Compounds Bearing Bathophenanthroline and Dihydroxybipyridine Ligands Achieve Nanomolar Toxicity towards Breast Cancer Cells

We report new ruthenium complexes bearing the lipophilic bathophenanthroline (BPhen) ligand and dihydroxybipyridine (dhbp) ligands which differ in the placement of the OH groups ([(BPhen)2 Ru(n,n'-dhbp)]Cl2 with n = 6 and 4 in 1A and 2A , respectively). Full characterization data are reported for 1A and 2A and single crystal X-ray diffraction for 1A . Both 1A and 2A are diprotic acids. We have studied 1A , 1B , 2A , and 2B (B = deprotonated forms) by UV-vis spectroscopy and 1 photodissociates, but 2 is light stable. Luminescence studies reveal that the basic forms have lower energy 3 MLCT states relative to the acidic forms. Complexes 1A and 2A produce singlet oxygen with quantum yields of 0.05 and 0.68, respectively, in acetonitrile. Complexes 1 and 2 are both photocytotoxic toward breast cancer cells, with complex 2 showing EC50 light values as low as 0.50 μM with PI values as high as >200 vs. MCF7. Computational studies were used to predict the energies of the 3 MLCT and 3 MC states. An inaccessible 3 MC state for 2B suggests a rationale for why photodissociation does not occur with the 4,4'-dhbp ligand. Low dark toxicity combined with an accessible 3 MLCT state for 1 O2 generation explains the excellent photocytotoxicity of 2.

Antitumor activity of tridentate pincer and related metal complexes

Pincer complexes featuring tunable tridentate ligand frameworks are one of the most actively studied classes of metal-based complexes. Currently, growing attention is devoted to the cytotoxicity of pincer and related metal complexes. The antiproliferative activity of numerous pincer complexes has been reported. Pincer tridentate ligand scaffolds show different coordination modes and offer multiple options for directed structural modifications. This review summarizes the significant progress in the research studies of the antitumor activity of pincer and related platinum(ii), gold(iii), palladium(ii), copper(ii), iron(iii), ruthenium(ii), nickel(ii) and some other metal complexes, in order to provide a reference for designing novel metal coordination drug candidates with promising antitumor activity.

Cellular uptake of protic ruthenium complexes is influenced by pH dependent passive diffusion and energy dependent efflux

The lipophilic vs. hydrophilic properties of three protic ruthenium compounds were studied as a function of pH. Specifically, we measured Log(D_o/w) values for [(N,N)₂Ru(6,6'-dhbp)]²⁺ complexes (where N,N = 2,2'-bipyridine (1_A), 1,10-phenanthroline (2_A), 2,3-dihydro-[1,4]dioxino[2,3-f][1,10]phenanthroline (3_A) and 6,6'-dhbp is the diprotic 6,6'-dihydroxy-2,2'-bipyridine ligand) from pH 4.0 to 8.0. This study allowed us to demonstrate that as the ligand is deprotonated at higher pH values the resulting neutral charge on the complex improves its lipophilic properties. Thus, improved uptake by passive diffusion is expected with protic ligands on Ru(II). Furthermore, cellular studies have demonstrated that passive diffusion is the dominant pathway for cellular uptake. However, metabolic inhibition has also shown that energy dependent efflux reduces the amount of the ruthenium complex (as measured by mean fluorescence intensity) in the cells. These compounds have been shown by fluorescence microscopy to accumulate in the nuclei of cancer cells (MCF7, MDA-MB-231, and HeLa). Taken together, this data shows that uptake is required for toxicity but uptake alone is not sufficient. The greatest light activated toxicity appears to occur in breast cancer cell lines with relatively moderate uptake (MCF7 and MDA-MB-231) rather than the cell line with the greatest uptake of complex 3_A (normal breast cell line MCF-10A).

A Ru(II) polypyridyl complex bearing aldehyde functions as a versatile synthetic precursor for long-wavelength absorbing photodynamic therapy photosensitizers

The use of Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) for the treatment of several kinds of cancer as well as bacterial, fungal or viral infections has received increasing attention during the last decade. However, the currently clinically approved photosensitizers (PSs) have several drawbacks, including photobleaching, slow clearance from the organism and poor water solubility. To overcome these shortcomings, many efforts have been made in the development of new types of PSs, such as Ru(II) polypyridyl complexes. Nevertheless, most studied Ru(II) polypyridyl complexes have a low absorbance in the spectral therapeutic window. In this work, we show that, by carefully selecting substituents on the polypyridyl complex, it is possible to prepare a complex absorbing at a much higher wavelength. Specifically, we report on the synthesis as well as in-depth experimental and theoretical characterisation of a Ru(II) polypyridyl complex (complex 3) combining a shift in absorbance towards the spectral therapeutic window with a high ¹O₂ production. To overcome the absence or poor selectivity of most approved PSs into targeted cells/bacteria, they can be linked to targeting moieties. In this line, compound 3 was designed with reactive aldehyde groups, which can be used as a highly versatile synthetic precursor for further conjugation. As a proof of concept, 3 was reacted with benzylamine and the stability of the resulting conjugate 4 was investigated in DMSO, PBS and cell media. 4 showed an impressive ability to act as a PDT PS with no measurable dark cytotoxicity and photocytotoxicity in the low micromolar range against cancerous HeLa cells from 450 nm up to 540 nm.

Experimental and theoretical investigations of novel oxidovanadium(IV) juglone complex: DNA/HSA interaction and cytotoxic activity

A new oxidovanadium(IV) complex VO(L)(Jug) (HL = 5-methoxy-1,3-bis (1-methyl-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)benzene, Jug = juglone) was synthesized and characterized. Interactions of the V(IV) complex with calf thymus DNA (CT DNA) and human serum albumin were studied using different techniques such as UV-vis and fluorescence emission spectroscopy. The experimental results were confirmed by the molecular docking study. The oxidovanadium(IV) complex can efficiently cleave pUC19 DNA in the presence of Hydrogen peroxide. Also, the in vitro cytotoxicity properties of the oxidovanadium(IV) complex was evaluated against MCF-7, HPG-2 and HT-29 cancer cell lines and HEK293 non-malignant fibroblasts were evaluated and compared with free ligands, VOSO₄ and cisplatin as reference drugs.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Experimental and theoretical investigation of cyclometallated platinum(ii) complex containing adamantanemethylcyanamide and 1,4-naphthoquinone derivative as ligands: synthesis, characterization, interacting with guanine and cytotoxic activity

A new cyclometallated platinum(ii) complex with 1-adamantanemethylcyanamide (1-ADpcydH) and 2-[amino(2-phenylpyridine)]-1,4-naphthoquinone (1,4-NQ) ligands with the formula cis-Pt(1,4-NQ)(1-ADpcyd)(H₂O) was synthesized and fully characterized. Cellular uptake, DNA platination, and cytotoxicity against human MCF-7 breast, HepG-2 liver hepatocellular carcinoma, and HT-29 colon cancer cell lines were evaluated. The interaction of guanine (G) with cis-Pt(1,4-NQ)(1-ADpcyd)(H₂O) was studied by ¹⁹⁵Pt NMR and mass spectroscopy. Furthermore, DFT calculations were performed on the complexes cis-Pt(1,4-NQ)(1-ADpcyd)(H₂O) 1 and cis-Pt(1,4-NQ)(1-ADpcyd)(G) 2 using the BP86-D and B3LYP functionals, in order to gain deeper insights into the molecular and electronic structures. Decomposition energy analysis gave a clear understanding of the bonding within both complexes, showing that the interactions were governed by two-third ionic and one-third covalent characters, which were stronger between the guanine and the Pt(ii) center than those between water and the Pt(ii).

A new cyclometallated platinum(ii) complex was synthesized and its characterization, interaction with guanine, and cytotoxic activity were investigated by experiment and theoretical calculations.

Sterically demanding methoxy and methyl groups in ruthenium complexes lead to enhanced quantum yields for blue light triggered photodissociation

Ruthenium complexes exhibit enhanced photodissociation quantum yields due to bulky, weak donor ligands, illustrating the impact of electronics and sterics.

The development of anticancer ruthenium(ii) complexes: from single molecule compounds to nanomaterials

Cancer is rapidly becoming the top killer in the world. Most of the FDA approved anticancer drugs are organic molecules, while metallodrugs are very scarce. The advent of the first metal based therapeutic agent, cisplatin, launched a new era in the application of transition metal complexes for therapeutic design. Due to their unique and versatile biochemical properties, ruthenium-based compounds have emerged as promising anti-cancer agents that serve as alternatives to cisplatin and its derivertives. Ruthenium(iii) complexes have successfully been used in clinical research and their mechanisms of anticancer action have been reported in large volumes over the past few decades. Ruthenium(ii) complexes have also attracted significant attention as anticancer candidates; however, only a few of them have been reported comprehensively. In this review, we discuss the development of ruthenium(ii) complexes as anticancer candidates and biocatalysts, including arene ruthenium complexes, polypyridyl ruthenium complexes, and ruthenium nanomaterial complexes. This review focuses on the likely mechanisms of action of ruthenium(ii)-based anticancer drugs and the relationship between their chemical structures and biological properties. This review also highlights the catalytic activity and the photoinduced activation of ruthenium(ii) complexes, their targeted delivery, and their activity in nanomaterial systems.

Designing new iridium(iii) arene complexes of naphthoquinone derivatives as anticancer agents: a structure-activity relationship study

A series of iridium(iii) arene complexes of naphthoquinone derivatives of the formula [IrIII(η6-L1)(L2)(3,5-(NO2)2pcyd)](PF6) (L1 = p-methylphenyl)ethynylferrocene; L2 = Lap: lapachol, 1, Plum: plumbagin, 2, Law: lawsone, 3, and Jug: juglone, 4; 3,5-(NO2)2pcyd = 3,5-dinitrophenylcyanamide) have been synthesized and investigated for their suitability as potential anticancer drugs. The DNA-binding interactions of the complexes with calf thymus DNA have been studied by absorption, emission, and viscosity measurements. Their cytotoxicity against the cancer cell lines including colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29), liver hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG-2), breast (MCF-7), colon carcinoma (HCT-8), and ovary (A2780) is reported. Remarkably, almost all complexes exhibit significant cytotoxic effects towards HepG-2, MCF-7, and HCT-8 cancer cell lines and complex 1 emerged as the most cytotoxic derivative in comparison with other complexes. The complexes 1-4 increase the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in MCF-7 cells. The new compounds also inhibit the enzyme thioredoxin reductase activity at nanomolar concentrations. Furthermore, the complexes induce major levels of cancer cell death by apoptosis that is in correlation with activity in cytotoxicity studies.

The cytotoxicity and mechanism of action of new multinuclear Scaffold AuIII, PdIIpincer complexes containing a bis(diphenylphosphino) ferrocene/non-ferrocene ligand

New multinuclear gold(iii), palladium(ii) pincer complexes containing bis(diphenylphosphino) ferrocene/non-ferrocene ligands were investigated for their cytotoxicity and mechanism of action.

Synthesis and C–H activation reactions of cyclometalated copper(i) complexes with NCN pincer and 1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane derivatives: in vitro antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity

A series of novel cyclometalated copper(i) complexes with NCN pincer and N-aryl-1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane ligands have been synthesized by C–H activation and studied for in vitro antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity.

New cyclometalated Ir(iii) complexes with NCN pincer and meso-phenylcyanamide BODIPY ligands as efficient photodynamic therapy agents

A new class of cyclometalated iridium(iii) with NCN pincer andmeso-phenylcyanamide BODIPY ligands has been synthesized and studied for photodynamic therapy.

The discovery of half-sandwich iridium complexes containing lidocaine and (pyren-1-yl)ethynyl derivatives of phenylcyanamide ligands for photodynamic therapy

The new design of two cyclopentadienyl iridium(iii) complexes with (pyren-1-yl)ethynyl derivatives of phenylcyanamide and lidocaine ligands, have been studied for photodynamic therapy.